odysseus journey to the underworld

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4 The ‘Nekyia’

Published: March 2018
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This chapter offers an analysis of the beginning of Odysseus’ Underworld journey in Odyssey 11. It follows closely the action as it develops in Odyssey 11 and it introduces the reader to the actual poetics of Hades through the discussion of the first encounters the hero has in Hades with his former companion Elpenor, the seer Teiresias, and his mother Antikleia. The chapter further offers an interpretation of the prophecy of Teiresias, which has often been seen as problematic by readers and scholars alike. This chapter shows that, on the contrary, it can be understood if it is seen through the lens of the poetics of Hades.

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History Cooperative

Odysseus: Greek Hero of the Odyssey

A Greek war hero, father, and king: Odysseus was all of this and then some. He miraculously survived the 10-year Trojan War and was the last of the veterans to return. However, his homeland – a humble island on the Ionian Sea – would evade him for another decade.

In the beginning, Odysseus and his men left the shores of Troy with 12 ships. The passage was not easy, being fraught with monstrosities and gods riled by the war’s aftermath. In the end, only Odysseus – one out of 600 comrades – returned home. And his home, the longing of which had propelled him forward thus far, had become a different type of battlefield.

In his time away during the war, over a hundred youths began lusting after Odysseus’ wife, his lands and title, and plotting to kill his beloved son. These circumstances became yet another trial the hero had to overcome. Now, equipped with naught but his cunning, Odysseus would once more rise to the occasion.

The story of Odysseus is full of twists and turns. Though at its heart, it echoes the story of a man doing whatever it took to make it home alive.

Table of Contents

Who is Odysseus?

Odysseus (a.k.a. Ulixes or Ulysses) is a Greek hero and the king of Ithaca, a small island on the Ionian Sea. He gained renown for his feats during the Trojan War , but it wasn’t until the journey home did he truly establish himself as a man worthy of being an epic hero.

During the events of the Trojan War in Homer’s Iliad , Odysseus was among many of Helen’s former suitors that were called to arms to retrieve her at the behest of her husband, Menelaus. Besides Odysseus’ military prowess, he was quite the orator: both full of guile and savvy. According to Apollodorus (3.10), Tyndareus – Helen’s stepfather – was concerned about bloodshed amongst the potential grooms. Odysseus promised to devise a plan to stop Helen’s suitors from killing one another if the Spartan king helped him “win the hand of Penelope.”

When Paris kidnapped Helen, Odysseus’ clever thinking came back to haunt him.

He became venerated in the hero cults of Greek religion. One such cult center was located in Odysseus’ homeland of Ithaca , in a cave along Polis Bay. More than this though, it is likely that the hero cult of Odysseus was spread as far as modern-day Tunisia, over 1,200 miles away from Ithaca, according to the Greek philosopher, Strabo.

READ MORE: History’s Most Famous Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and More!

Odysseus is the son of Laertes, King of the Cephallenians, and Anticlea of Ithaca. By the events of the Iliad and the Odyssey , Laertes is a widower and a co-regent of Ithaca.

What is Co-Regency?

After his departure, Odysseus’ father took over most of Ithaca’s politics. It was not unusual for ancient kingdoms to have co-regents. Both ancient Egypt and Biblical ancient Israel observed co-regency at numerous points in their histories.

Generally, a co-regent was a close family member. As is seen between Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , it was also occasionally shared with a spouse. Co-regencies are unlike diarchies, which were practiced in Sparta because co-regencies are a temporary arrangement. Diarchies, meanwhile, were a permanent feature in the government.

READ MORE: Egyptian Pharaohs: The Mighty Rulers of Ancient Egypt

It would be implied that Laertes would step down from official duties after Odysseus’ return to Ithaca.

Odysseus’ Wife: Penelope

As the most important person in his life besides his son, the wife of Odysseus, Penelope, plays a crucial role in the Odyssey . She is known for her stalwart approach toward her marriage, her intellect, and her role as an Ithacan queen. As a character, Penelope exemplifies ancient Greek womanhood . Even the ghost of Agamemnon – himself murdered by his wife and her lover – manifested and praised Odysseus on “what a fine, faithful wife you won!”

READ MORE: The Life of Women in Ancient Greece

Despite being married to the king of Ithaca, 108 suitors vied for Penelope’s hand during her husband’s long absence. According to her son Telemachus, the suitor composition was 52 from Dulichium, 24 from Samos, 20 from Zakynthos, and 12 from Ithaca. Granted, these guys were convinced Odysseus was super dead, but still moving into his home and accosting his wife for a decade is creepy . Like, beyond so.

For 10 years, Penelope refused to declare Odysseus dead. Doing so delayed public mourning , and made the suitor’s pursuits seem both unjustifiable and shameful.

On top of that, Penelope had a couple of tricks up her sleeve. Her legendary wit is reflected in the tactics she used to delay the hounding suitors. First, she claimed that she had to weave a death shroud for her father-in-law, who was getting on in years.

In ancient Greece , Penelope’s weaving of a burial shroud for her father-in-law was the epitome of filial piety. It was Penelope’s duty as the woman of the house in the absence of Laertes’ wife and daughter. Thus, the suitors had no choice but to lay off their advances. The ruse was able to delay the men’s advancements for three more years.

Odysseus’ Son: Telemachus

Odysseus’ son was just a newborn when his father left for the Trojan War . Thus, Telemachus – whose name means “far from battle” – grew up in a lion’s den.

The first decade of Telemachus’ life was spent during a massive conflict that robbed local wily youths of the guidance provided by an older generation. Meanwhile, he continued to grow into a young man in the years after the war. He struggles with his mother’s ceaseless suitors while simultaneously holding out hope for his father’s return. At some point, the suitors plot to kill Telemachus but agree to wait until he returns from searching for Odysseus.

Telemachus eventually gets sweet revenge and helps his father slaughter all 108 men.

It is worth noting that the original Homeric epic cites Telemachus to be Odysseus’ only child. Even so, that may not be the case. During his exploits back to Ithaca, Odysseus could have fathered up to six other children: seven kids in all. The existence of these spare children is up for debate since they are primarily mentioned in Hesiod’s Theogony and Pseudo-Apollodorus’ “Epitome” from Bibliotheca .

What is the Odysseus Story?

The story of Odysseus is a long one and begins in Book I of the Iliad . Odysseus disembarked for the war effort unwillingly but stayed until the bitter end. During the Trojan War, Odysseus put his all into keeping morale up and keeping casualties low.

At the end of the war, it took Odysseus another 10 years to get home and this journey is described in the Odyssey, Homer’s second epic poem. The first of the books, collectively known as The Telemachy , focuses entirely on Odysseus’ son. It isn’t until Book V do we revisit the hero.

Odysseus and his men earn the wrath of the gods, come face-to-face with horrifying monstrosities, and stare down their mortality in the eyes. They travel across the Mediterranean and Atlantic Seas, even passing by Oceanus at the ends of the Earth. At some point, Greek legend tells of Odysseus being the founder of modern Lisbon, Portugal (called Ulisipo during the Roman Empire ’s heyday).

While this is all going down, Odysseus’ wife, Penelope, struggles to maintain peace at home. Suitors insist that she should remarry. It is her duty, they believe, as her husband is likely long dead.

It is important to note that despite the death and loss that surrounds Odysseus on his journey home, his story is not qualified as a tragedy. He manages to successfully circumvent many of his trials and overcomes all obstacles in his path. Even the wrath of Poseidon couldn’t stop him.

In the end, Odysseus – the last of his crew – makes it home alive to Ithaca.

How are the Gods Represented in the Odyssey ?

Odysseus’ journey home was as tormenting as it was eventful thanks to the influence of the gods. Following Homeric tradition, the Odyssean gods were swayed by emotions and took easily to offense. Duty, pettiness, and lust drove the gods of the Odyssey to interfere with the hero’s journey home to rugged Ithaca.

Much of the time, Odysseus’ passage was barred by some mythological being or another. Some of the Greek gods that play their hand in the story of Odysseus are as follows:

Whereas Athena and Poseidon had a more pivotal role in the story, the other deities were sure to make their mark. The Ocean nymph Calypso and the goddess Circe acted simultaneously as lovers and hostage-takers. Hermes and Ino offered Odysseus aid in his times of need. Meanwhile, the likes of Zeus passed divine judgment with the sun god Helios pulling his arm.

Mythological monsters also threatened Odysseus’ voyage, including…

Polyphemus the Cyclops

Monstrosities like Charybdis, Scylla, and the Sirens clearly pose a greater threat to Odysseus’ ship than the others on the list, but Polyphemus shouldn’t be trifled with either. If it weren’t for Odysseus blinding Polyphemus then they never would have left the island of Thrinacia. They’d all probably end up in Polyphemus’ stomach otherwise.

In all honesty, the wringer that Odysseus and his men are put through makes the Trojan War seem tame.

What is Odysseus Most Famous For?

The acclaim Odysseus has is largely in part because of his penchant for trickery. Honestly, the guy can really think on his feet. When we consider that his grandfather was a famous rogue, maybe it is safe to say it is hereditary.

One of his more infamous stunts was when he feigned insanity in an attempt to avoid the draft for the Trojan War. Picture this: a young king plowing salted fields, unresponsive to the world around him. It was going great until the Euboean prince Palamedes threw Odysseus’ infant son Telemachus in the way of a plow.

Of course, Odysseus swerved the plow to avoid hitting his child. Thus, Palamedes managed to disprove Odysseus’ madness. Without delay, the Ithacan king was sent to the Trojan War. Cunning aside, the man was catapulted forward as an epic hero when he remained decidedly loyal to the Greek war effort, neglecting his desire to return home.

Generally, the escapades of Odysseus and his men on their return voyage to Ithaca are what the world remembers the hero for. Though there is no denying that time and time again, Odysseus’ persuasive powers came in clutch to save the day.

Odysseus in the Trojan War

During the Trojan War, Odysseus played a significant part. When Thetis put Achilles into hiding to avoid his enlistment, it was Odysseus’ ruse that gave away the hero’s disguise. Furthermore, the man acts as one of Agamemnon’s advisors and displays great control over swaths of the Greek army at various points in time. He convinces the leader of the Achaeans to stay in a seemingly hopeless battle not once, but twice , despite his own strong desire to return home.

Moreover, he was able to console Achilles long enough after the death of Patroclus to give the Greek soldiers a much-needed break from combat. Agamemnon may have been the Achaean commander, but it was Odysseus who restored order to the Greek camp when tensions rose. The hero even returned the daughter of a priest of Apollo to put an end to a plague that befell the Greek army.

READ MORE: Apollo Family Tree: The Lineage of the Greek God of Light

Long story short, Agamemnon was given Chryseis, the daughter of the priest, as a slave. He was really into her, so when her father came bearing gifts and requesting her safe return, Agamemnon told him to kick rocks. The priest prayed to Apollo and boom , here comes the plague.

Oh, and the Trojan horse? Greek legend credits Odysseus as the brains of that operation.

Crafty as ever, 30 Greek warriors led by Odysseus infiltrated the walls of Troy. This Mission Impossible-style infiltration is what put an end to the 10-year conflict (and Trojan King Priam’s lineage).

Why Does Odysseus Go to the Underworld?

At some point on his perilous journey, Circe warns Odysseus of the dangers that await him. She informs him that if he desires a way home to Ithaca, he would have to seek out Theban Tiresias, a blind prophet.

The catch? Tiresias was long dead. They would have to travel to the Underworld, the House of Hades if they wanted to go home.

READ MORE: 10 Gods of Death and the Underworld From Around the World

Himself long-since exhausted, Odysseus admits that he “wept as I sat on the bed, nor had my heart any longer desire to live and behold the light of the sun” ( Odyssey , Book X ). Ithaca seemed further than ever before. When Odysseus’ men discovered their next destination, the hero describes how “their spirit was broken within them, and sitting down right where they were, they wept and tore their hair.” Odysseus and his men, all mighty Greek warriors, are horrified at the idea of going to the Underworld.

The mental and emotional toll of the journey was evident, but it was only just beginning.

Circe directs them to a grove of Persephone across from “deep eddying Oceanus .” She even describes the exact way they had to go about calling forth the dead and the animal sacrifices they would have to make thereafter.

When the crew reached the Underworld, countless wraiths emerged from Erebus : “brides, and unwedded youths…toil-worn old men…tender maidens…and many…that had been wounded…men slain in fight, wearing…blood-stained armor.”

The first of these spirits to approach Odysseus was one of his men, a youth named Elpenor that died intoxicated in a fatal fall. He was an ataphos , a spirit wandering that did not receive a proper burial. Odysseus and his men had neglected such, being too caught up in their voyage to Hades.

READ MORE: Hades Family Tree: A Family of Hades, Greek God of the Dead

Odysseus also witnessed the spirit of his mother, Anticlea, before Tiresias appeared.

How Did Odysseus Get Rid of the Suitors?

After 20 years gone, Odysseus returns to his homeland of Ithaca. Before going further, Athena disguises Odysseus as a poor beggar to keep his presence on the island on the down low. Odysseus’ true identity is then revealed only to Telemachus and a select number of loyal servants.

By this time, Penelope was at the end of her line. She knew that she could delay the gaggle of admirers no longer. The men – all 108 – were given a challenge by the Ithacan queen: they had to string and shoot Odysseus’ bow, sending the arrow cleanly through several axeheads.

Penelope knew that only Odysseus could string his bow. There was a trick to it that only he knew. Even though Penelope was fully aware of this, it was her last chance to defy the suitors.

Consequently, each suitor failed to string the bow, let alone shoot it. It was a massive blow to their confidence. They began to disparage the thought of marriage. There were other women available, they lamented, but to fall so exceedingly short of Odysseus was embarrassing.

Finally, a disguised Odysseus hobbled forward: “…wooers of the glorious queen…come, give me the polished bow…I may prove my hands and strength, whether I have yet might such as was of old in my supple limbs, or whether by now my wanderings and lack of food have destroyed it” ( Odyssey , Book XXI ). Despite protest from the admirers, Odysseus was permitted to try his hand. The servants loyal to their lord were tasked with locking exits.

In a blink, Odysseus dropped the face reveal of the Bronze Age. And he’s armed.

You could hear a pin drop. Then, slaughter ensued. Athena shielded Odysseus and his allies from the suitor’s defenses all while helping her favorites strike true. All 108 suitors were killed.

Why Does Athena Help Odysseus?

The goddess Athena plays a central role in Homer’s epic poem, Odyssey . More so than any other god or goddess. Such is undeniably true. Now, just why she was so willing to offer her aid is worth exploring.

First things first, Poseidon, the Greek god of the sea , has it out for Odysseus. As the saying goes, “the enemy of my enemy is my friend.” Athena has had a bit of a grudge against Poseidon ever since they competed for the patronage of Athens. After Odysseus managed to blind Poseidon’s Cyclops son, Polyphemus, and earns the sea god’s ire, Athena had even more of a reason to get involved.

READ MORE: Poseidon Family Tree: The Divine Lineage of the Ancient Greek God of the Sea

Secondly, Athena already has a vested interest in Odysseus’ family. For much of the Odyssey , she acts as a guardian for both Odysseus and young Telemachus. While this likely comes down to their heroic bloodline, Athena also makes it known that she is Odysseus’ patron goddess. Their relationship is confirmed in Book XIII of the Odyssey when Athena exclaims, “…yet you did not recognize Pallas Athene, Daughter of Zeus, who always stands by your side and guards you through all your adventures.”

In all, Athena helps Odysseus because it is her duty. She must fulfill her duty just as the other gods must. Truth be told, having her charge cross Poseidon is just a bonus for her.

Who Killed Odysseus?

The epic Odyssey leaves off with Odysseus making amends with the families of Penelope’s suitors. Ithaca is prosperous, pleasant, and most of all peaceful when the story comes to a close. From that, we can garner that Odysseus lived out the rest of his days being a family man.

The man deserves it after everything he went through. Unfortunately, you can probably see where this is going: that just isn’t the case.

In the Epic Cycle – a collection of poems recounting pre- and post-Trojan War events – a lost poem known as Telegony immediately succeeds Odyssey. This poem chronicles the life of Telegonus, Odysseus’ young son born from the hero’s affair with the sorceress Circe.

With a name meaning “born afar,” Telegonus sought out Odysseus when he came of age. After a series of blunders, Telegonus finally came face-to-face with his old man…unknowingly, and in a skirmish.

During the confrontation, Telegonus strikes the killing blow to Odysseus, stabbing him with a poisoned spear gifted by Athena. Only in Odysseus’ dying moments did the two recognize each other as father and son. Heartbreaking, but Telegonus’ story doesn’t end there.

After a possibly very awkward family reunion on Ithaca, Telegonus brings Penelope and Telemachus back to his mother’s island, Aeaea. Odysseus is buried on the beach and Circe turns everyone else present immortal. She ends up settling down with Telemachus and, with her youth regained, Penelope remarries…Telegonus.

Was Odysseus Real?

The fantastic Homeric epics of ancient Greece still ignite our imaginations. There’s no denying that. Their humanness tells a more uniquely human story than other tales of the time. We can look back on the characters – god and man-like – and see ourselves reflected back to us.

When Achilles mourns the loss of Patroclus in the Iliad , we feel his sorrow and desperation; when the women of Troy are separated, raped, and enslaved, our blood boils; when Poseidon refuses to forgive Odysseus for blinding his son, we understand his resentment.

Regardless of how real the characters of Homer’s classic epics are to us, there is no tangible evidence of their existence. Obvious gods aside, even the lives of the mortals involved cannot be concretely verified. This means that Odysseus, a beloved character for generations, likely did not exist. At least, not as a whole.

If there was an Odysseus, his exploits would have been exaggerated, if not borrowed wholly from other individuals. Therefore, Odysseus – the hypothetically real Odysseus – could have been a great king of a minor Ionian island during the Bronze Age. He could have had a son, Telemachus, and a wife that he adored. Truth be told, the real Odysseus may have even participated in a large-scale conflict and was considered missing in action.

This is where the line is drawn. The fantastical elements that adorn Homer’s epic poems would be distinctly lacking, and Odysseus would have to navigate a stark reality.

What is Odysseus the God Of?

Does having a cult dedicated to your triumphs make you a god? Eh, it depends.

It is important to consider what constitutes a god in Greek myth. Generally, gods were mighty immortal beings. This means they cannot die, at least not by any usual means. Immortality is one of the reasons Prometheus could endure his punishment, and why Cronus was able to be diced up and tossed into Tartarus .

In some cases, powerful gods could reward individuals with immortality, but this was uncommon. Usually, mythology only mentions demigods becoming gods since they were already divinely inclined. Dionysus is a good example of this because he, despite being born mortal, became a god after ascending Olympus.

Roman Opinion of Odysseus

Odysseus may be a fan favorite in Greek myths, but that doesn’t mean he saw the same popularity with the Romans. In fact, many Romans link Odysseus directly to the fall of Troy.

For some background, Romans oftentimes identified themselves as the descendants of Prince Aeneas of Troy. After Troy fell to the Greek army, Prince Aeneas (himself a son of Aphrodite ) led survivors to Italy. They became the progenitors of the Romans.

READ MORE: Aphrodite Family Tree: A Family of the Greek Goddess of Love

In the Aeneid , Virgil’s Ulysses typifies a common Roman bias : the Greeks, despite their apt cunning, are immoral. While Hellenism gained traction throughout the Roman Empire , Roman citizens – especially those belonging to the upper echelons of society – viewed the Greeks through a narrow elitist lens.

They were impressive people, with vast knowledge and rich culture – but, they could be better (i.e. more Roman).

However, the Roman people were as varied as any other, and not all shared such a belief. Numerous Roman citizens looked upon how Odysseus approached situations with admiration. His roguish ways were ambiguous enough to be comically applauded by the Roman poet Horace, in Satire 2.5 . Likewise, “cruel Odysseus,” the deceitful villain, was celebrated by the poet Ovid in his Metamorphoses for his skill in oration ( Miller, 2015 ).

Why is Odysseus Important to Greek Mythology?

The importance of Odysseus to Greek mythology extends far beyond Homer’s epic poem, Odyssey . He gained renown as one of the most influential Greek champions, commended for his cunning and bravery in the face of adversity. Moreover, his misadventures throughout the Mediterranean and Atlantic Seas grew into a staple of the Greek Hero Age, equivalent to the maritime feats of Jason and the Argonauts .

More than anything, Odysseus figures centrally as one of Greece’s glittering heroes of ages past. When all is said and done, the Iliad and the Odyssey take place during the Hero Age of Greek mythology. It was during this time that the Mycenaean civilization dominated much of the Mediterranean.

READ MORE: Ancient Civilizations Timeline: The Complete List from Aboriginals to Incans

Mycenaean Greece was immensely different than the Greek Dark Ages that Homer grew up in. In this way, Odysseus – as with many of Greece’s most famous heroes – represents a lost past. A past that was filled with daring heroes, monsters, and gods. For this reason, Odysseus’ tale supersedes the obvious messages of Homer’s epics.

Sure, the tales act as a warning against violating xenia , the Greek concept of hospitality and reciprocity. And, yes, Homer’s epic poems brought to life the Greek gods and goddesses that we know today.

Despite the above, the biggest contribution Odysseus gives to Greek mythology is being a significant part of their lost history. His actions, decisions, and cunning acted as a catalyst for innumerable key events throughout the Iliad and Odyssey , respectively. These events – from the oath sworn by Helen’s suitors to the Trojan horse – all impacted Greek history.

As Seen in O Brother, Where Art Thou? And Other Media

From film adaptations to television and plays, the epics of Homer are a hot topic.

One of the more famous films to emerge in recent years is the comedy-musical, O Brother, Where Art Thou? released in 2000. With a star-studded cast and George Clooney as the leading man, playing Ulysses Everett McGill (Odysseus), the movie was a hit. Pretty much, if you like the Odyssey but would love to see it with a Great Depression twist then you’ll enjoy this film. There are even Sirens!

On the flip side of things, there have been attempts at more faithful adaptations in the past. These include the 1997 miniseries, The Odyssey , with Armand Assante as Odysseus, and a 1954 film starring Kirk Douglas, Ulysses . Both have their pros and cons, but if you’re a history buff then both are uniquely admirable.

Even video games couldn’t resist paying homage to the late Ithacan king. God of War: Ascension has Odysseus as a playable character in multiplayer mode. His armor set is otherwise available for Kratos, the main character, to wear. Comparatively, Assassin’s Creed: Odyssey is more of a reference to the epic highs and lows of Bronze Age seafaring Odysseus experienced.

How to Cite this Article

There are three different ways you can cite this article.

1. To cite this article in an academic-style article or paper , use:

<a href=" https://historycooperative.org/odysseus-greek-hero-of-the-odyssey/ ">Odysseus: Greek Hero of the Odyssey</a>

Journeys to the Underworld in Classical Literature and Culture

Credit value : 30 credits at Level 5
Convenor and tutor : Professor Catharine Edwards
Assessment : two 2500-word essays (25% each) and a 48-hour online examination (50%)

Module description

Greco-Roman conceptions of the underworld represent it as strictly for the dead, a place from which there is no return. Yet the story of a living hero daring to descend to the underworld - and to come back - features already in Homeric epic. Odysseus makes the perilous journey to Hades to interrogate the ghosts of his companions, also encountering his dead mother.

The underworld descent and return was familiar enough in fifth-century Athens to become the stuff of comedy in the hand of Aristophanes, whose Frogs centres around the journey of Dionysus to the underworld (which turns out to be full of feuding tragic poets). Descent to the underworld is appropriated to philosophic ends by Plato in his Phaedo . Virgil offers a Roman reworking of Odysseus’ journey in his Aeneid , where Aeneas goes down to the underworld and, guided by the ghost of his own father, is given foresight into Rome’s future. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses , a radical reworking of the epic form, gives his own version of Orpheus’ journey.

What exactly is at stake in these accounts of descent to the underworld?
Can we usefully detach myths from the literary contexts in which they are recounted?
What is the relationship between these underworld narratives and religious beliefs?
What happens when Virgil reworks Homer?

During this module we will explore these diverse underworld-journey narratives to interrogate the relationship between myth and literature in Greco-Roman antiquity.

The Odyssey Book IX - Nekuia, in Which Odysseus Speaks to Ghosts

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The greek underworld, tiresias and anticlea, other women, heroes and friends.

M.A., Linguistics, University of Minnesota
B.A., Latin, University of Minnesota

Book IX of The Odyssey is called Nekuia, which is an ancient Greek rite used to summon and question ghosts. In it, Odysseus tells his King Alcinous all about his fantastic and unusual trip to the underworld in which he did just that.

Usually, when mythic heroes undertake the dangerous voyage to the Underworld , it's for the purpose of bringing back a person or animal of value. Hercules went to the Underworld to steal the three-headed dog Cerberus and to rescue Alcestis who had sacrificed herself for her husband. Orpheus went below to try to win back his beloved Eurydice, and Theseus went to try to abduct Persephone . But Odysseus ? He went for information.

Although, obviously, it is frightening to visit the dead (referred to as the home of Hades and Persephone "aidao domous kai epaines persphoneies"), to hear the wailing and weeping, and to know that at any moment Hades and Persephone could make sure he never sees the light of day again, there is remarkably little peril in Odysseus' voyage. Even when he violates the letter of the instructions there are no negative consequences.

What Odysseus learns satisfies his own curiosity and makes a great story for King Alcinous whom Odysseus is regaling with tales of the fates of the other Achaeans after the fall of Troy and his own exploits.

Poseidon's Wrath

For ten years, the Greeks (aka Danaans and Achaeans) had fought the Trojans. By the time Troy (Ilium) was burned, the Greeks were eager to return to their homes and families, but much had changed while they'd been away. While some local kings were gone, their power had been usurped. Odysseus, who ultimately fared better than many of his fellows, was to suffer the wrath of the sea god for many years before he was permitted to reach his home.

"[ Poseidon ] could see him sailing upon the sea, and it made him very angry, so he wagged his head and muttered to himself, saying, heavens, so the gods have been changing their minds about Odysseus while I was away in Ethiopia, and now he is close to the land of the Phaeacians, where it is decreed that he shall escape from the calamities that have befallen him. Still, he shall have plenty of hardship yet before he has done with it." V.283-290

Poseidon refrained from drowning the hero, but he threw Odysseus and his crew off course. Waylaid on the island of Circe (the enchantress who initially turned his men into swine), Odysseus spent a luxurious year enjoying the bounty of the goddess. His men, however, long restored to human form, kept reminding their leader of their destination, Ithaca . Eventually, they prevailed. Circe regretfully prepared her mortal lover for his trip back to his wife by warning him that he would never make it back to Ithaca if he didn't first speak with Tiresias.

Tiresias was dead, though. In order to learn from the blind seer what he needed to do, Odysseus would have to visit the land of the dead. Circe gave Odysseus sacrificial blood to give to the denizens of the Underworld who could then speak to him. Odysseus protested that no mortal could visit the Underworld. Circe told him not to worry, the winds would guide his ship.

"Son of Laertes, sprung from Zeus, Odysseus of many devices, let there be in thy mind no concern for a pilot to guide thy ship, but set up thy mast, and spread the white sail, and sit thee down; and the breath of the North Wind will bear her onward." X.504-505

When he arrived at Oceanus, the body of water encircling the earth and the seas, he would find the groves of Persephone and the house of Hades, i.e., the Underworld. The Underworld is not actually described as being underground, but rather the place where the light of Helios never shines. Circe warned him to make the appropriate animal sacrifices, pour out votive offerings of milk, honey, wine, and water, and fend off the shades of the other dead until Tiresias appeared.

Most of this Odysseus did, although before questioning Tiresias, he talked with his companion Elpenor who had fallen, drunk, to his death. Odysseus promised Elpenor a proper funeral. While they talked, other shades appeared, but Odysseus ignored them until Tiresias arrived.

Odysseus provided the seer with some of the sacrificial blood Circe had told him would permit the dead to speak; then he listened. Tiresias explained Poseidon's anger as the result of Odysseus' blinding Poseidon's son (the Cyclops Polyphemus , who had found and eaten six members of Odysseus' crew while they were taking shelter in his cave). He warned Odysseus that if he and his men avoided the herds of Helios on Thrinacia, they would reach Ithaca safely. If instead, they landed on the island, his starving men would eat the cattle and be punished by the god. Odysseus, alone and after many years of delay, would reach home where he would find Penelope oppressed by suitors. Tiresias also foretold a peaceful death for Odysseus at a later date, at sea.

Among the shades, Odysseus had seen earlier had been his mother, Anticlea. Odysseus gave the sacrificial blood to her next. She told him that his wife, Penelope, was still waiting for him with their son Telemachus, but that she, his mother, had died from the ache she felt because Odysseus had been away so long. Odysseus longed to hold his mother, but, as Anticlea explained, since the bodies of the dead were burned to ash, the shades of the dead are just insubstantial shadows. She urged her son to talk with the other women so he would be able to give news to Penelope whenever he reached Ithaca.

Odysseus briefly talked to a dozen women, mostly good or beautiful ones, mothers of heroes, or beloved of the gods: Tyro, mother of Pelias and Neleu; Antiope, mother of Amphion and the founder of Thebes, Zethos; Hercules' mother, Alcmene; Oedipus' mother, here, Epicaste; Chloris, mother of Nestor, Chromios, Periclymenos, and Pero; Leda, mother of Castor and Polydeuces (Pollux); Iphimedeia, mother of Otos and Ephialtes; Phaedra; Procris; Ariadne; Clymene; and a different type of woman, Eriphyle, who had betrayed her husband.

To King Alcinous, Odysseus recounted his visits to these women quickly: he wanted to stop speaking so he and his crew could get some sleep. But the king urged him to go on even if it took all night. Since Odysseus wanted help from Alcinous for his return voyage, he settled down to a more detailed report on his conversations with the warriors beside whom he had fought so long.

The first hero Odysseus spoke with was Agamemnon who said Aegisthus and his own wife Clytemnestra had killed him and his troops during the feast celebrating his return. Clytemnestra wouldn't even close her dead husband's eyes. Filled with distrust of women, Agamemnon gave Odysseus some good advice: land secretly in Ithaca.

After Agamemnon, Odysseus let Achilles drink the blood. Achilles complained about death and asked about his son's life. Odysseus was able to assure him that Neoptolemus was still alive and had repeatedly proved himself to be brave and heroic. In life, when Achilles had died, Ajax had thought the honor of possessing the dead man's armor should have fallen to him, but instead, it was awarded to Odysseus. Even in death Ajax held a grudge and would not speak with Odysseus.

Next Odysseus saw (and briefly recounted to Alcinous) the spirits of Minos (son of Zeus and Europa whom Odysseus witnessed meting out judgment to the dead); Orion (driving herds of wild beasts he had slain); Tityos (who paid for violating Leto in perpetuity by being gnawed upon by vultures); Tantalus (who could never quench his thirst despite being immersed in water, nor slake his hunger despite being inches from an overhanging branch bearing fruit); and Sisyphus (doomed forever to roll back up a hill a rock that keeps rolling back down).

But the next (and last) to speak was Hercules' phantom (the real Hercules being with the gods). Hercules compared his labors with those of Odysseus, commiserating on the god-inflicted suffering. Next Odysseus would have liked to have spoken with Theseus, but the wailing of the dead scared him and he feared Persephone would destroy him using the head of Medusa :

"I would fain have seen - Theseus and Peirithoos glorious children of the gods, but so many thousands of ghosts came round me and uttered such appalling cries, that I was panic stricken lest Persephone should send up from the house of Hades the head of that awful monster Gorgon." XI.628

So Odysseus finally returned to his men and his ship, and sailed away from the Underworld through Oceanus, back to Circe for more refreshment, comfort, a burial, and help to get home to Ithaca.

His adventures were far from over.

Updated by K. Kris Hirst

'The Odyssey' Themes and Literary Devices
'The Odyssey' Quotes Explained
Summary of Odyssey Book IV
'The Odyssey' Overview
'The Odyssey' Summary
'The Odyssey' Characters: Descriptions and Significance
Overview of Homeric Epithets
'The Odyssey' Vocabulary
Death and Dying in "The Iliad"
Summary of the Iliad Book I
Summary of Homer's Iliad Book XXIII
Tiresias: Ovid's Metamorphoses
Studying the Bible as Literature
'Animal Farm' Questions for Study and Discussion
'Wuthering Heights' Themes, Symbols, Literary Devices

Cahiers des études anciennes

Accueil Numéros LIII Localization of the Odyssey’s Und...

Localization of the Odyssey ’s Underworld

Entrées d’index, index de mots-clés : , texte intégral.

1 On ancient and modern localization of Odysseus’ journey, see my webpage « In the Wake of Odysseus (...)

1 Locating the Odyssey ’s Underworld would seem to be a ridiculous endeavor. The Odyssey is vague about how Odysseus reaches the Underworld ; its description of Hades is sketchy. And Hades is a supernatural place : how could one discover its location ? Indeed, those intent on following in the wake of Odysseus, no matter how enthusiastic, often steer clear of the Underworld 1 . But many since Antiquity have localized the Odyssean Underworld, or at least its entrance. Others forego reality and theorize about the abstract cosmography implied by Odysseus’ journey to the Hades. Between these extremes of real-world localization and mental mapping lie a wide variety of arguments, with different implications about the Homeric epic. Concentrating on Odysseus’ journey to the Underworld, I will explore how the geography and spatiality of the wanderings of Odysseus have been variously conceptualized.

2 The most comprehensive collection of localization is by A. Wolf & H.‑H. Wolf, Die Wirkliche Reise (...)

2 There are many different types of Homeric localization. Modern books that purport to trace the « real » journey of Odysseus are typically written by amateurs outside of academia, or at least classical studies. Some are composed by sensationalists claiming that Odysseus sailed across the Atlantic or around the world 2 . But those recounting autoptic visitation of Mediterranean locales, besides providing entertainment as travel writing, can be of interest to Homerists. Examples of what I will call « popular localization » will be discussed towards the end of the paper.

3 For criticism of localization, cf . A. Heubeck, « Books IX-XII », in A. Heubeck , S. West & J. B. Ha (...)
4 J. S. Romm , The Edges of the Earth in Ancient Thought , Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1992 (...)
5 Cf . A. Heubeck, op. cit. , p. 4‑5, where ancient and modern localization are conflated as equally « (...)

3 « Why bother ? », you may ask 3 . Popular localizers lead their readers through a close (if tendentious) reading of the wanderings, and they often reference relevant ancient testimony. Their arguments may not persuade us, but their method is comparable to other conceptions of the relation of the journey of Odysseus to the real world. The ancients habitually linked the wanderings of Odysseus to locations in the Mediterranean. I refer not just to geographers like Eratosthenes and Strabo 4 ; Greek and Roman inhabitants of Italy and Sicily believed that Odysseus had visited their lands. This was not idle whimsy ; ancient localization involved serious matters of origins and genealogy 5 . Homerists have theorized about the real world provenance of Odysseus’ journey and explored its cosmographical implications. Methods of connecting the wanderings to Mediterranean places vary greatly, but recurring tendencies are discernible. By comparing and contrasting the diverse ways in which the Homeric Underworld has been conceptualized, we can better frame our own approach to the Odyssey ’s underworld episode. I will start with a close reading of the Underworld in the Odyssey before turning to cosmographical localization, geographical localization, and finally popular localization.

6 For a well theorized study of spatial perspective in the Odyssey ’s narrative, see A. Purves , Space (...)

4 Though localization can be simplistic, it exists on a continuous spectrum with Homeric research, which, after all, is another form of reception. Professionals as well as amateurs are interested in the spatial aspects of the Homeric poem 6 . Scholarship has often explored the underworld episode’s provenance in the real world and its abstract cosmography. By considering the diversity of ways in which the Homeric Underworld has been conceptualized, we can better frame our own approach to the Odyssey ’s underworld episode.

I - The Homeric Underworld

5 As has long been recognized, Book XI of the Odyssey seems to begin as a necromancy (the summoning of shades of the dead) before evolving into a kat á basis (a heroic journey to the Underworld by a mortal). The seeming disjunction between necromancy and catabasis in the Homeric episode, as well as suspicions of interpolation for such sections as the catalogue of women, the punishment of sinners, and the appearance of Heracles, has encouraged scepticism about the unity of Odyssey XI. In my analysis I will treat the whole of the episode as authentic, and in particular I do not consider the presence of both necromantic and catabatic elements to be poetically problematic. But the seeming conflation of the two has led to very different ways of localizing the scene. The necromantic nature of the episode has tempted some to see real-world nekuomanteîa as foundational for Homer’s Underworld. The Odyssey ’s explicit placement of the Underworld at the edge of the earth has inspired others to visualize Odysseus’ journey as movement through an abstract cosmography.

6 Before exploring geographical and cosmographical interpretations of the Homeric Underworld, we should consider how the Odyssey itself portrays it. Information about Odysseus’ travel to the Underworld is very limited. When Odysseus announces his intention to leave Circe, she consents but states the necessity of first undertaking a journey to the home of Hades and Persephone (XI, 490-491). Odysseus in dismay points out that nobody has travelled to Hades in a ship (502). Circe replies that his ship will reach Hades without guidance, under the force of the north wind (506-507). When he has travelled through Oceanus ( δι ' Ὠκεανοῖο περήσῃς , 508), she adds, and reaches the « shore and groves of Persephone » (509), with poplars and willows, he should beach the ship « at Oceanus » ( ἐπ ' Ὠκεανῷ , 511). Then he is to proceed to the home of Hades, where the Pyriphlegethon and Kokytos, the latter an offshoot of the Styx, flow together into the Acheron river by a rock (512-515). Circe provides no further spatial information except for the directive to turn the sacrificial animals towards Erebus while facing back towards the « streams of the river » (528-529). The river is apparently Oceanus ; Erebus, literally « darkness », would then refer to the region of Hades, as commonly.

7 Odysseus similarly questions Elpenor (57-58) about how he reached Hades by foot, which reminds one (...)

7 The actual journey to Hades seems to proceed as foretold by Circe, though the direction of the guiding wind is not specified (XI, 10), and there is some additional information. Odysseus recalls that the ship sailed all day until the sun set (11-12), and then reached the « limits » ( πείραθ ' , 13) of Oceanus. There, the Phaeacians are told, is where the Cimmerians live, under everlasting night (14-19). The Greeks proceeded « along the stream of Oceanus » (21) until they came to the place specified by Circe. Odysseus does not report that he followed Circe’s directional advice for the sacrifice, but he states that souls immediately gathered from « Erebus » (36-37). Odysseus then sits, except when he tries to embrace his mother, and allows only certain souls to approach and drink the sacrificial blood in order to speak (a conceit that eventually fades from the telling). Of further relevance is Teiresias’ observation that Odysseus « leaving the light of the sun » came to see the dead, and Anticleia’s surprise that her living son could cross rivers and Oceanus, which she claims is possible by ship but not by foot (155-159) 7 . It has been noticed that Odysseus replies that necessity brought him down to Hades ( κατήγαγεν , 164). Catabatic terms to describe the journey are employed elsewhere : when the shade of Achilles asks how Odysseus dared to come down to Hades ( κατελθέμεν , 475), and when Odysseus himself says to Penelope that he went down into the house of Hades ( κατέβην δόμον Ἄϊδος εἴσω , XXIII, 252).

8 After Odysseus has conversations with several heroes who approach him, in some unexplained manner he is able to view souls inside Hades. When Odysseus and the men leave, the current carries the ship on Oceanus ( κατ ' Ὠκεανὸν ποταμὸν , 639), with the men rowing until a wind of unnamed direction impels it. The ship leaves the current of Oceanus (XII, 1) and reaches the flow of the sea ( κῦμα θαλάσσης , 2), and eventually Aeaea, where the house of Dawn is located and Helios rises (3-4). Further demarcation of the Underworld is given in the second nékyia in Book XXIV. Here Hermes guides the souls near « the streams of Oceanus », a « white rock », the gates of Helios, and the place of dreams (11-12). Then they find the shades in a field of asphodel (13), where Odysseus had earlier observed shades (XI, 539 ; 573).

II - Homeric cosmography

8 See G. S. Kirk , J. E. Raven & M. Schofield , The Presocratic Philosophers , Cambridge, Cambridge Uni (...)
9 Cf . Iliad VII, 421-423 ; VIII, 485 ; XIX, 433-434 ; Odyssey X, 191 ; XII, 374-388 ; XXIV, 12 ; Hom (...)
10 Key sources are Mimnermus 11a West ; Stesichorus fr. 185 PMG ; see further T. Gantz , Early Greek M (...)
11 D. Ogden , Greek and Roman Necromancy , Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2001, discusses heroi (...)
12 C. Sourvinou-Inwood , Reading Greek Death , Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1995, p. 56-65, describes Odyss (...)

9 These Homeric details can be contextualized by essential cosmographical concepts of early Greek thought 8 . The cosmos is visualized as existing on axis of the horizontal and the vertical. In early Greek epic, Olympus is said to be far above the earth and Hades and Tartarus are thought of as far below earth ( Iliad VIII, 13-16 ; Hesiod, Theogony 720 sq .). Vertical connection is manifested by pillars or Atlas. The sun sets below the earth in the West and rises in the East, apparently by entering Oceanus, passing beneath the earth, and then rising from Oceanus 9 . In another conception not found in Homer, Helios and his chariot circle back horizontally from the West on a huge cup. Heracles borrows this cup to travel from the East to Geryon’s Erytheia in Oceanus 10 . The horizontal nature of Heracles’ cosmographic travel on Oceanus is comparable to Odysseus’ horizontal underworld journey, though catabasis by Heracles and other heroes to Hades is usually vertical, through openings in the earth 11 . If travelling to the Underworld by sail is unparalleled in Greek myth, it conforms in some ways to traditional concepts of Greek cosmography 12 .

13 See N. Austin , « The One and the Many in the Homeric Cosmos », Arion 1 (1973-1974), p. 219-274 ; D (...)
14 See G. Cursaru, « Entre l’est et l’ouest, à midi : structures spatio-temporelles de l’île de Circé (...)

10 It is hard to comprehend Greek cosmography in accordance with our conceptions of time and space 13 . Calypso’s island Ogygia is at the navel of the sea (I, 50), for example, yet also peripheral ; not coincidentally she is the daughter of Atlas (VII, 245) , usually located in the West. Circe’s Aeaea is near the home of the dawn goddess Eos and the rising of Helios, and so at the eastern edge of the earth (XII, 3-4). Yet Odysseus claims that he cannot there perceive his location in terms of the compass 14 .

15 See J. S. Burgess , op. cit. n. 12 , p. 198.

16 Cf . Parmenides I, 11-14, which may support an alternate reading of the Theogony passage whereby Da (...)
17 LIMC Suppl. V, s. u . Helios 105 ; see G. F. Pinney & B. S. Ridgway , « Herakles at the Ends of the (...)

11 Another confusing passage is especially pertinent to discussion of the Homeric Underworld. At Laestrygonian Telepylus (« Far-gate ») the paths of Night and Day are said to be near each other (X, 86), in explanation of why Laestrygonian shepherds pass each other in and out of pasture (X, 82-83) 15 . That in Hesiod’s Theogony (747-757) Night and Day pass each other over a threshold next to Atlas holding up heaven in the West (at 517-518 he is near the Hesperids) is seemingly relevant to the Odyssey passage 16 . Also apparently relevant is a black-figure lekythos from the early fifth century that depicts Helios and his chariot halfway in the sea while Eos and Night ride towards each other on two fluid and curved paths connected to a cave that probably symbolizes an entrance to the Underworld 17 .

18 See M. West, op. cit. , p. 366-367 ; A. Heubeck , op. cit. n. 4 , p. 48, for bibliography.

19 Strabo III, 2, 12, cites this passage to support his argument that Tartaros is based on Tartessus.

20 G. Germain, Genèse de l’ Odyssée, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1954, p. 521-524, sees t (...)
21 See A. Heubeck, op. cit. n. 4 , p. 48, followed by D. Nakassis , op. cit. n. 13 , p. 224-225, at leas (...)

12 Interpretation of such cosmographical material has varied much 18 . One might understand Telepylus to be somewhere on the western edge of the earth. At Iliad VIII, 485-486, Helios falls into Oceanus while « drawing black Night upon grain-giving land » 19 . The passage would seem to portray Night naturalistically moving over the earth from the East in the same direction as Day setting in the West. Yet in the Odyssey passage the two shepherds, apparently in reaction to the movement of Day and Night, or perhaps signifying them, move in opposite directions 20 . That a hypothetically sleepless herdsman could work night and day in Telepylus ( Odyssey X, 84-85) has encouraged s ome to place it in an exotic east of perpetual light, in polar opposition to the Cimmerians of perpetual darkness (XI, 14-24) 21 .

22 J. S. Burgess , op. cit. n. 12 , p. 199, with reference to comparative mythology, following G. Germa (...)

23 G. Nagy , Greek Mythology and Poetics , Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1990, p. 237.

24 G. Cerri , op. cit. n. 10 , distinguishes between a eighth-century mental map of the world and a six (...)

13 The location of Laestrygonian Telepylus and Circe’s Aeaea are central to cosmographical reconstructions of Odysseus’ journey to the Underworld. Such efforts are essentially spatially abstract versions of popular localization, especially in their attention to the directional sequence of the hero’s movement on the edges of the earth and to the Underworld. According to my own analysis, Odysseus is able to travel from Telepylus on the western or north-western edge of the world directly to Circe’s Aeaea on the eastern edge of the world because the points of the compass collapse at the earth’s periphery 22 . G. Nagy argues that Odysseus arrives at a western Aeaea from a western Telepylus, yet returns to an eastern Aeaea from the Underworld 23 . G. Cerri differently argues that Odysseus and his men experience their adventures on Oceanus, travelling clockwise to Telepylus in the north and then around east to Aeaea. It is maintained that an early Greek conception of the world would conflate the Italian peninsula with the European continent ; through a wide channel that we know of as the straits of Messina, Odysseus sails outward to Oceanus, entering back into the Mediterranean after a full circle 24 .

25 A. Heubeck , op. cit. n. 4 , p. 78. This argument has the advantage of accounting for the north wind (...)
26 A. Heubeck , op. cit. n. 4 , p. 78, denies that Odysseus traverses Oceanus, or that it has a farther (...)

14 One is reminded of A. Heubeck’s explanation of Odysseus’ trip to Hades as a clockwise circumnavigation of Oceanus, starting from Aeaea in the East, stopping at Hades in the West, and then continuing on Oceanus back to Aeaea 25 . But G. Cerri’s argument is very different. Besides the placement of most of Odysseus’ wanderings on Oceanus, G. Cerri locates the entrance to Hades in the East, with recourse to the motif of Helios’ cup. Most locate a cosmographical entrance to Hades in the West, as the setting of the sun would seem to suggest, though Greek cosmography implies the existence of a gate in the East from which Helios rises. G. Cerri contends that sailing through the Oceanus (X, 508) to the peirata of the Oceanus (XI, 13) must mean crossing from Aeaea on the inner border eastward to the outer border of Oceanus 26 .

15 These abstract localizations of Odysseus’ journey to Hades all focus on the same suggestive details in Odysseus’ account, as contextualized by early Greek cosmography. Perhaps each, including my own, is vulnerable to criticism to the extent that direction and sequence of movement is emphasized. Greek cosmography defies normal measures of space and time. The argument of D. Nakassis that there existed different bi-polar and uni-polar conceptions of solar phenomena that were sometimes conflated provides the most useful approach to the complex and often perplexing nature of Greek cosmography.

III - Geographical localization

27 See L. Kim , Homer Between History and Fiction in Imperial Greek Literature , Cambridge, Cambridge U (...)
28 Cf . C. Dougherty , The Raft of Odysseus , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001 ; J. S. Burgess, « “ (...)

16 Another perspective on the Homeric Underworld focuses on actual places as inspiration for the cosmographical journey. This is therefore an investigation into origins, not an identification of the spatiality in Homer’s epic. Belief in a Mediterranean reality that Homer exaggerates is essentially the method of Strabo 27 . Like Eratosthenes, he also assumes that a historical Odysseus made a real voyage in the western Mediterranean (as do most popular localizers and some Homerists). A more nuanced version of the geographical approach is provided by modern postcolonial studies of the Homeric epic 28 . Since the Odyssey was composed in the age of Greek colonization of the West, it may present a mythologized portrayal of this historical context. That need not entail making exact identification of locales in the wanderings. But as we shall see, some localizers consider Greek expansion in the western Mediterranean to be foundational for the Homeric concept of the Underworld.

29 Cf . E. Rohde , Psyche , New York, Harper & Row (English translation by W. B. Hillis) , 1966, p. 24 : (...)
30 E. g ., G. L. Huxley, « Odysseus and the Thesprotian Oracle of the Dead », PP 13 (1958), p. 246-247 (...)
31 D. Ogden , op. cit. n. 11 , p. XXIV-XXV and 43-64, with D. Ogden, « How “ Western ” were the Ancient (...)

17 Pausanias (I, 17, 4) claims that Homer created his Underworld after viewing the river Acheron in Thesprotia, to the point of transferring the names of the Thesprotian rivers Acheron and Cocytus to Hades 29 . Since Thesprotian Acheron was the site of a nekuomanteîon associated with mythological catabases, many have found this approach attractive 30 . D. Ogden argues that the Thesprotian nekuomanteîon is documented by the Homeric episode of Odysseus’ journey to the Underworld, maintaining further that Greek colonists relocated the Homeric episode to Avernus in Italy 31 .

32 Cf . Iliad II, 749-750 ; XVI, 234-235 ; Odyssey XIV, 327-328 = XIX, 296-297, with particular refere (...)
33 For the possibility of a Homeric conception of Pylus (« Gate ») of western Greece as the gates of (...)

18 Pausanias assumes that Homer innovatively transformed his autoptic knowledge of Thesprotian Acheron into something fantastic, but the Acheron theory need not imply that a Thesprotian location for Odysseus’ underworld journey is signalled by the Homeric text. Homeric meaning is not the same as Homeric origins or reception. The Odyssey explicitly speaks of Odysseus traveling to the edge of the earth and otherwise references Thesprotia as a known part of northwest Greece 32 . The poem probably does not expect its audience to regard one locale as both geographically identifiable and fantastic 33 .

34 See R. J. Clark, Catabasis : Vergil and the Wisdom-Tradition , Amsterdam, B. R. Grüner, 1978, p. 54 (...)
35 See M. L. West, « Odyssey and Argonautica », CQ 55 (2005), p. 39-64. At Odyssey XII, 70 Circe ment (...)
36 Crete is often featured in the disguised hero’s tales. See S. Reece, « The Cretan Odyssey : A Lie (...)
37 G. Danek , Epos und Zitat : Studien zu den Quellen der Odyssee , Vienna, Verlag der Österreichischen (...)
38 G. Danek , Ibid. , explores the Odyssey ’s relation to alternative or competing narratives. Cf . J. S. (...)

19 The Thesprotian Acheron theory is only one of several hypotheses concerning the geographical origins of the Odyssey 34 . Many believe that the wanderings of Odysseus are based on the voyage of the Argo in the Black Sea 35 , and there is also a Cretan hypothesis, according to which the real-world lying tales of Odysseus resemble an original or competing version of the wanderings 36 . This theory is especially relevant to our concerns because of its Thesprotian corollary, in which the visit by « Odysseus » to the Thesprotian oracle of Dodona in Odysseus’ lying tales (XIV, 314-340 ; XIX, 270-299) reflects a pre-Homeric version of the wanderings of Odysseus 37 . Arguably a summoning of the shade of Teiresias would then occur at the Acheron nekuomanteîon . But the question remains whether pre-Homeric material has a presence with narratological significance in the Odyssey . Opinion varies about the allusive resonance of vestigial pre-Homeric material in the Odyssey . The Homeric poem may acknowledge or disown its background — if it is even aware of it 38 .

IV - Modern popular localization

20 Popular localizers typically find explicit evidence for « real » locations in the Homeric poem. It is a trope of the genre for the localizer to travel with a text of the Odyssey open in hand. Some consider Odysseus a historical character who really did wander in the Mediterranean ; some believe that Homer had certain locations in mind, perhaps after visiting these places himself. The distinction between a historical and a fictionalized journey of Odysseus is not always made. Concern with tracing a coherent whole of the journey, characteristic of the popularizing localizer, is seemingly motivated by faith in its historical reality or a desire to vindicate Homer’s geographical knowledge. Where the Homeric text is not forthcoming with information, the localizer seeks to explain, often with the rhetoric of discovery, what Homer really meant. Key textual evidence for popular localizers includes direction of wind, duration of travel between landings, and description of topographical features. Autopsy is considered essential ; the popular localizer seeks to match features of visited landscape to Homeric descriptions of Odysseus’ stopping points.

39 P. Clüver , Sicilia Antiqua , Leiden, 1619, p. 255-264.

40 Ibid. , p. 256.

21 Given the amount of popular localization, I must discuss its treatment of the Homeric Underworld by reference to just a few select examples. In the early 17 th century Philipp Clüver, the Polish historian and geographer, wrote an essay on the journey of Odysseus in his book about Sicily 39 . P. Clüver traveled extensively through the lands he wrote about. Unlike many popular localizers, he makes clear from the start that he is interpreting Homer’s telling of the voyage, not the actual voyage of a historical Odysseus 40 . The geographer believed that Homeric locations could be found in Sicily and Italy, and he portrayed these as stops on a continuous, coherent journey. In this P. Clüver anticipates a common tenet of modern localization.

41 Ibid. , p. 260-261. D. Ogden, op. cit. n. 11 , p. 61-74, convincingly argues that no cave in the are (...)

42 P. Clüver , op. cit ., p. 258-259.

43 On which see E. D. Phillips , op. cit. n. 31 , with I. Malkin, op. cit. n. 5 , p. 178-209.

22 P. Clüver sees Avernus as the locale of the Odyssean Underworld, with a cave serving as the entrance to the Underworld 41 . Topography is central to P. Clüver’s argumentation. For example, he asserts that west not east Sicily was the location of the Cyclopes, since only the Egadi islands offered a suitable candidate for « Goat Island » 42 . Less realistically, P. Clüver thinks that the waters of the Lucrine bay and Lake Avernus represent the Oceanus of the Homeric episode. Why the Homeric text transforms the Italian location into Oceanus, his concise Latin does not articulate. But P. Clüver is not interpreting the Odyssey ; instead, he cited the extremely brief Latin summary of the epic by the 4 th century Ausonius. To be fair, P. Clüver’s knowledge of ancient mythological and literary traditions is superior to that of many recent localizers. He is aware, for example, of the legend whereby Aeneas and Odysseus travel to Italy together 43 , and he is certain that Aeneas visited Avernus in traditions long before Vergil. All this is commendable, excepting the under-theorized linkage of Avernus to the Homeric Underworld.

44 F. L. zu Stolberg, Travels through Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Sicily , London, G. G. & J. Rob (...)
45 F. L. zu Stolberg , Ibid. , vol. 2, p. 438, translating P. Clüver on Avernus ; further on Avernus, s (...)

23 In the late 18 th century Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg criticized P. Clüver on this very point in his epistolary account of travels in Europe. He knows his classical literature, and he is also informed on localization theories. F. L. zu Stolberg is not necessarily hostile to them ; he is inclined to think, for example, that the Homeric Cyclopes are an exaggerated portrayal of natives on west Sicily 44 . But he complains that P. Clüver wrongly « encourages the dream » that Avernus is the place of the Homeric Underworld 45 . If Homer visited the area, F. L. zu Stolberg states, he would not have been impressed enough to make the connection. He is not willing to concede that Avernus on the Italian peninsula could correspond to a mythological river surrounding the earth, even through hyperbole.

46 See A. Wolf , op. cit. n. 3 , p. 311-312.

24 Many localizers, it should be said, leave Odysseus’ trip to Hades to one side, viewing the episode as too supernatural to relate to the real world in any way. Those who try to make the connection must ignore much of the text, or construct an elaborate hypothesis involving originary layering and / or poetical embellishment. It is relevant that F. L. zu Stolberg refers approvingly to the map of his contemporary J. H. Voss, which becomes increasingly conceptual at the periphery of the Mediterranean world 46 . The development of this type of map marks an advance in the theorization of the localization of Odysseus’ journey.

47 V. Bérard , L’ Odyssée . Poésie homérique , Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1924. The localization books ar (...)
48 V. Bérard, Les Phéniciens et l’ Odyssée, Paris, Armand Colin, 1902-1903, p. 312-329 ; Les Navigatio (...)
49 V. Bérard, Les Phéniciens et l’ Odyssée, Paris, Armand Colin, 1902-1903, p. 313-319 ; Les Navigatio (...)

25 Over the last hundred years, popular localization of the route of Odysseus has expanded greatly. The most prominent localizer in the first half of the twentieth century was Victor Bérard, a Homeric scholar who produced a critical text and translation of the Odyssey 47 . V. Bérard travelled extensively to Odyssean locales (his publications often include dated journal entries that read like travel writing). For the Underworld V. Bérard essentially adhered to the Avernus theory 48 . The author is plausible enough in his nautical demonstration of a day’s sail south from Monte Circeo to Cape Misenum, and in his frequent comparisons of volcanic activity to the Homeric description of Hades. The reader may be forgiven, however, for being less than patient with a description of the Lucrine lake as Oceanus, bolstered by a tendentious etymological and geographical explanation 49 . Etymological argumentation with reference to Semitic roots is central to V. Bérard’s main hypothesis, which was that Phoenician períploi , or shipping routes, were the ultimate source of Homer’s information. This argument is not taken seriously today. Also problematic is the claim that the identification of Avernus and other Italian sites with Odysseus goes back to prehistory.

50 V. Bérard , Dans le sillage d’Ulysse , Paris, Armand Colin, 1933, publishes the photos of Frédéric B (...)

51 J. Cuisenier, Le Périple d’Ulysse , Paris, Fayard, 2003, p. 293-300.

26 But V. Bérard’s return to tracing Odysseus’ travel on a geographically correct map has become the current norm, and his method of autoptic research by boat has been influential 50 . For example, at the beginning of this millennium Jean Cuisenier updated the sea-going approach of V. Bérard. Though a philosopher and anthropologist by training, J. Cuisenier displays much oceanographical and meterological knowledge in his expeditions. However, he largely follows in the wake of V. Bérard — like his predecessor, he sails down from Monte Circeo, moors his boat at Misenum, and walks to Avernus 51 .

52 T. Severin, The Ulysses Voyage , London, Hutchison, 1987 p. 143-150. The great travel writer Patric (...)

53 T. Severin, Ibid. , p. 184-193.

27 A more historicizing recreation of the journey of Odysseus was made in the 1980s by Tim Severin, who has made a career out of retracing journeys, both historical and fictional. For Greek myth, T. Severin first gave his attention to the voyage of the Argo, constructing a Bronze Age ship in which to recreate the journey. This Argo was subsequently utilized to recreate the journey of Odysseus. The resulting route in the eastern Mediterranean to the Ionian Islands is rather restricted, portrayed as a historical journey that later became greatly exaggerated. One stop is at Cape Tainaron, which happens to be the site of an ancient nekuomanteîon 52 . A cave there was sometimes linked with heroic catabasis. Though T. Severin is sympathetic to the view that western Greece could once have been regarded as the edge of the world ( cf . supra n. 33), he continues further north to Thesprotian Acheron for the Homeric Underworld 53 . T. Severin is an expert seaman and is reasonably well informed about ancient evidence, but the argument is naively historicist. And as often with popular localization, the book expends more energy on trying to astound the reader than explaining the methodology in a clear manner.

54 L. G. Pocock, Reality and Allegory in the Odyssey, Amsterdam, A. M. Hakkert, 1959, p. 72-88.

55 See H.‑G. Nesselrath , op. cit. n. 29 .

28 Though Lake Avernus is the favored localization of Odysseus’ Underworld, both in Antiquity and post-Antiquity, other theories have occasionally arisen. One would place the Odyssean Underworld at or just outside the pillars of Heracles. In the 1950s Lewis Pocock argued at length for this identification, though as an admirer of Samuel Butler’s The Authoress of the Odyssey he focused on Sicily for most of his localizations 54 . Soon afterward Ernle Bradford, an experienced sailor with a background in Classics, made the same argument more diffidently. The Gibraltar localization at least has the benefit of respecting the peripheral nature of the Odyssean underworld entrance, and the Pillars of Heracles were not uncommonly considered the edge of the world in early Greek myth 55 . However, a glance at E. Bradford’s map indicates why this identification is inconsistent with his real-world methodology : it is too far west from the other localizations for a day’s trip.

56 A. Wolf & H.‑H. Wolf, op. cit. n. 2 , p. 53-61.

57 W. Geisthovel, Homer’s Mediterranean , London, Haus Publishing, 2010, p. 91-100.

58 The descent was traditionally at the fountain Cyane near Syracuse. See, e. g. Diodorus Siculus V, (...)

59 A. Wolf & H.‑H. Wolf , op. cit. n. 2 , p. 30 ; A. Wolf, op. cit. n. 2, p. 322.

29 Another localization of the Homeric Underworld is at Enna. This is proposed by Armin Wolf, a Medievalist who with the assistance of a brother produced the most comprehensive compilation of localization theories 56 . Noting that the abduction of Persephone was located in the fields outside of Enna in Antiquity, A. Wolf argues that this is Odysseus’ Underworld entrance. The excellent travel writer Wolfgang Geisthovel follows A. Wolf in this and other localizations, and at least makes the theory entertaining as travel writing 57 . But of course the hypothesis is not defensible if judged in geographical or rational terms. Poor Odysseus must moor his boat at Himera, a far walk from Enna, and if Enna is apparently where Hades ascends, it is not where he descends with Persephone 58 . A. Wolf’s argument is motivated by a need to find a nearby underworld entrance in the vicinity of Sicily, around which he locates most of the journey. But it should be noted that before pursuing localization on a real-world map the Wolfs create a more defensible schematic map, based on the Odyssey ’s indication of wind direction and duration of travel 59 .

30 One cannot find much clarity in the Odyssey about the spatiality of Odysseus’ wanderings, real-world or otherworld. The wanderings are told by a character who is perpetually lost, and his travel to the underworld episode depends on the instructions and magical assistance of Circe. As with indications of travel in the rest of the wanderings (usually wind direction and duration of sailing), the information that Odysseus reports about his voyage to and back from the Underworld is meager and incomplete. The Odyssey would seem more interested in exploring the poetics of Odysseus meeting shades than providing an itinerary, explicit or latent, for travel to and from Hades. The epic does not plausibly motivate the journey and seems unconcerned by inconcinnity, such as the apparent conflation of necromancy with catabasis.

60 On theories of Homeric hinting by ancient historians and Strabo, see L. Kim , op. cit. n. 28 , p. 30 (...)

31 It may be that the Odyssey assumes an audience conversant with Greek cosmography and thus able to comprehend the spatiality of this supernatural journey. A cosmographical interpretation of Odysseus’ travel to Hades, even if insufficiently supported by the evidence of the text, might serve to inform the modern audience of the proper mentalité with which to understand an ancient conception of the trip. But localizers tend to disregard reception of the poem, portraying themselves as uncovering hidden meanings. It is the text’s insufficient evidence and inconsistency that offers opportunity for original analysis. Ancient as well as modern localizers would have us believe that the wanderings contain key bits of information about real Mediterranean locations, whether vestigial or allusive 60 . Conceiving of the text as a transformed or veiled account of an actual journey by a historical Odysseus, they are confident in their ability to crack its code.

32 Such an interpretative stance should be met with scepticism. But we should also recognize that Homerists indulge in similar proclivities, if less baldly and clumsily. With recourse to varying degrees of historicism and intentionalism, they have interpreted the wanderings as a reflection or transformation of a preceding reality. The supposition that the Homeric wanderings innovatively modify a geographically anchored version of the wanderings, as in the lying tales, is especially popular. The possibility that the Homeric poem inspired subsequent localization is of less interest to Homerists, since localization is dismissed as non-Homeric.

33 In the sense that the epic wants us to think that its Heroic Age hero travels in unknown lands, localization is indeed non-Homeric. But ancient localization of the wanderings, which may be an organic aspect of Odyssean myth rather than reception of the Odyssey , is an important aspect of the cultural history of Antiquity. And linkage of the underworld episode, with real-world nekuomanteîa as suggested in Antiquity and in modern scholarship, is of contextual relevance to the Odyssey . Though the poem does not locate the scene at a known geographical place, the behavior of Odysseus suggests necromancy. The relevance of historical places of necromancy to the poem, whether in terms of origins or reception, should continue to be discussed.

61 See J. S. Burgess , « Belatedness in the Travels of Odysseus », in F. Montanari & A. Rengakos (eds) (...)

34 Though localization of the wanderings in all its forms is flawed, it remains problematic, in the manner of Eratosthenes, to portray the Homeric account of the journey of Odysseus as mere poetic fantasy. This point of view, both in Antiquity and in the modern world, tends to contain the unfortunate implication that myth and poetry are free of the taint of the real world. We certainly should avoid succumbing to a historicist belief in the reality of Odysseus’ journey or an intentionalist interpretation of Homer’s hidden meaning, but it is also problematic to insist that this mythological story of a Heroic Age journey is completely divorced from the world contemporary to the Odyssey ’s composition. The Homeric text does not place the wanderings of Odysseus in locations known to the hero, but the wanderings would seem to occur in a Mediterranean inhabited by exotic non-Greeks as well as more supernatural beings 61 . The postcolonial interpretation of the epic as employing discourses arising from historical and geographical realities of the time of its composition avoids the positivism of other interpretative positions surveyed above. The concerns of this approach, however, are not as relevant to underworld episode.

62 To cite skilled Unitarian studies of Book XI of the Odyssey , see G. Crane, op. cit. n. 30 ; O. Tsa (...)
63 I thank the student researchers who have worked on my « In the Wake of Odysseus » website, with pa (...)

35 My discussion may seem unusually accommodating of popular localization, which is routinely rejected by the academic world. But besides identifying difficulties of popular localization, I have pointed out that its methodology is comparable to that of Homerists to some degree 62 . Both popular localization and Homeric studies undertake close reading in a search for clues, and the arguments of both can be breathtaking in their boldness. This may seem to condemn the propensity of Homerists to speculate as much as it defends popular localization . But the spatiality of the wanderings remains a fascinating and important topic, if best pursued with self-conscious awareness of our assumptions and methodology 63 .

1 On ancient and modern localization of Odysseus’ journey, see my webpage « In the Wake of Odysseus ». One section concerns « The Ultimate Journey : The Underworld ». L. Antonelli, « Le Localizzazioni della Nékyia di Odisseo » in L. Braccesi (ed.), Hesperià : Studi sulla Grecità di Occidente , Rome, L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1995, vol. 5, p. 203-222, surveys methods of localizing the Nékyia .

2 The most comprehensive collection of localization is by A. Wolf & H.‑H. Wolf, Die Wirkliche Reise des Odysseus , Munich / Vienna, Langen Müller, 1983. My website « In the Wake of Odysseus » provides more recent examples. See A. Wolf , Hatte Homer eine Karte ? Karlsruhe, Fachhochschule Karlsruhe, 1997, for exposition of Armin Wolf’s own thesis. A. Wolf , « Mapping Homer’s Odyssey », in G. Tolias & D. Loupis (eds), Eastern Mediterranean Cartographies , Athens, Institute for Neohellenic Research, 2004, p. 309-334, usefully surveys maps of the journey of Odysseus, noting that comprehensive tracing of the whole journey is a key characteristic of modern localization.

3 For criticism of localization, cf . A. Heubeck, « Books IX-XII », in A. Heubeck , S. West & J. B. Hainsworth (eds), A Commentary on Homer’s Odyssey, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1990, vol. 2, p. 4‑7 ; J. S. Romm , « Odysseus’ Wanderings », in M. Finkelberg (ed.), The Homer Encyclopedia , Malden / Oxford, Blackwell, 2011, vol. 2, p. 587.

4 J. S. Romm , The Edges of the Earth in Ancient Thought , Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1992, p. 183-195, surveys geographical debate about Odysseus’ journey in Antiquity.

5 Cf . A. Heubeck, op. cit. , p. 4‑5, where ancient and modern localization are conflated as equally « pointless ». See I. Malkin , The Returns of Odysseus , Berkeley, University of California Press, 1998, for the historical and geographical employment of nostoi myths, including that of Odysseus.

6 For a well theorized study of spatial perspective in the Odyssey ’s narrative, see A. Purves , Space and Time in Ancient Greek Narrative , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 65-96.

7 Odysseus similarly questions Elpenor (57-58) about how he reached Hades by foot, which reminds one of a typological question put to newcomers to Ithaca, sometimes seen as a joke. Cf . Odyssey I, 171-173 = XIV, 188-190 ; XVI, 57-59 and 222-224.

8 See G. S. Kirk , J. E. Raven & M. Schofield , The Presocratic Philosophers , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983 (1957), p. 9-13, for an overview. Hesiod is essential ; see D. Clay, « The World of Hesiod », Ramus 21 (1992), p. 131-155. D. Ogden , « Dimensions of Death in the Greek and Roman Worlds », in P. Gemeinhardt & A. Zgoll (eds), Weltkonstruktionen , Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2010, p. 103-131, insightfully discusses the spatial and temporal aspects of the Greek Underworld from the perspective of nekuomanteîa .

9 Cf . Iliad VII, 421-423 ; VIII, 485 ; XIX, 433-434 ; Odyssey X, 191 ; XII, 374-388 ; XXIV, 12 ; Homeric Hymn to Hermes 68‑69. See further A. Ballabriga , Le Soleil et le tartare : L’image mythique du monde en Grèce archaïque , Paris, Éditions EHESS , 1986.

10 Key sources are Mimnermus 11a West ; Stesichorus fr. 185 PMG ; see further T. Gantz , Early Greek Myth , Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993, p. 31, and G. Cerri , « L’Ade ad Oriente, viaggio quotidiano del carro del Sole e direzione della corrente dell’Oceano », in L. Breglia & A. Moleti (eds), Hespería . Tradizioni, Rotte, Paesaggi , Paestum, Pandemos, 2014, p. 169-172, for discussion.

11 D. Ogden , Greek and Roman Necromancy , Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2001, discusses heroic catabasis at necromantic sites.

12 C. Sourvinou-Inwood , Reading Greek Death , Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1995, p. 56-65, describes Odysseus’ journey to Hades as innovative. Non-Greek Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Indo-European traditions are comparable, however ; see J. S. Burgess , « Odysseus and Gilgamesh in the Otherworld », Classical Views / Échos du monde classique 18 ( 1999), p. 171-210.

13 See N. Austin , « The One and the Many in the Homeric Cosmos », Arion 1 (1973-1974), p. 219-274 ; D. Nakassis, « Gemination at the Horizons : East and West in the Mythical Geography of Archaic Greek Epic », TAPhA 134 (2004), p. 215-233. The observations of D. Ogden , op. cit. n. 8 , on the elasticity of space and time in the Underworld are relevant.

14 See G. Cursaru, « Entre l’est et l’ouest, à midi : structures spatio-temporelles de l’île de Circé », LEC 76 (2008), p. 39-64, for the spatial-temporal complexity of Aeaea. Human perception of spatiality may be impossible at the edge of the earth, but see J. S. Burgess , « Belatedness in the Odyssey », in F. Montanari , A. Rengakos & C. C. Tsagalis (eds), Homeric Contexts : Neoanalysis and the Interpretation of Oral Poetry , Berlin, de Gruyter, 2012, p. 276-277, for a less cosmographical interpretation of this passage.

16 Cf . Parmenides I, 11-14, which may support an alternate reading of the Theogony passage whereby Day and Night are separate. This is rejected by D. Nakassis , op. cit. , p. 218 n. 13, following M. L. West , Hesiod : Theogony, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1966, p. 366-367. D. Nakassis argues that from a « cosmic or panoptic » perspective the sun is conceived to rise and set in a « uni-polar » location.

17 LIMC Suppl. V, s. u . Helios 105 ; see G. F. Pinney & B. S. Ridgway , « Herakles at the Ends of the Earth », JHS 101 (1981), p. 141-144, whose interpretation I follow at J. S. Burgess , op. cit. n. 12 , p 196‑197, though seeing paths not mist.

20 G. Germain, Genèse de l’ Odyssée, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1954, p. 521-524, sees the shepherds as metaphors for Day and Night.

21 See A. Heubeck, op. cit. n. 4 , p. 48, followed by D. Nakassis , op. cit. n. 13 , p. 224-225, at least from a « bi-polar » perspective. Crates (schol. ad X, 86) initiated the popular theory that description of Telepylus reflects knowledge of long days in the far north . Some believe with Strabo (III, 2, 12) that Homer innovatively transferred historical Cimmerians of the East to the West. On the relation between Homeric Cimmerians and the historical Cimmerians see A. Heubeck , op. cit. n. 4 , p. 77-79 ; D. Ogden , op. cit. n. 11 , p. 44.

22 J. S. Burgess , op. cit. n. 12 , p. 199, with reference to comparative mythology, following G. Germain , op. cit. , p. 414-417 and 421-422.

24 G. Cerri , op. cit. n. 10 , distinguishes between a eighth-century mental map of the world and a sixth-century conception ; actual maps are provided as demonstration. The 1926 map by Albert Herrmann similarly placed the Cyclopes, Laestrygonians, and Cimmerians on the inner shore of Oceanus (A. Wolf , « Mapping Homer’s Odyssey », in G. Tolias & D. Loupis (eds), Eastern Mediterranean Cartographies , Athens, Institute for Neohellenic Research, 2004, p. 316). A. Wolf includes a number of modern maps of the voyage of Odysseus with a geographically correct central Mediterranean surrounded by hazier outlines towards Oceanus. Cf . the conceptual map by A. Ballabriga, Les Fictions d’Homère. L’invention mythologique et cosmographique dans l’ Odyssée, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1998, p. 111 , representing an Archaic Age concept of the world.

25 A. Heubeck , op. cit. n. 4 , p. 78. This argument has the advantage of accounting for the north wind (X, 507) that impels Odysseus’ ship at the start of the journey, as G. Cerri’s explication does not.

26 A. Heubeck , op. cit. n. 4 , p. 78, denies that Odysseus traverses Oceanus, or that it has a farther shore.

27 See L. Kim , Homer Between History and Fiction in Imperial Greek Literature , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 47-84, for an incisive exploration of Strabo’s attitude towards Homer.

28 Cf . C. Dougherty , The Raft of Odysseus , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001 ; J. S. Burgess, « “ If Peopled and Cultured ” : Bartram’s Travels and the Odyssey », in G. R. Ricci (ed.), Travel, Discovery, Transformation , New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers, 2014, p. 19-44 , with bibliography.

29 Cf . E. Rohde , Psyche , New York, Harper & Row (English translation by W. B. Hillis) , 1966, p. 24 : « Homer knows nothing of necromancy or the oracles of the dead » ; see further p. 52, n. 73. Pausanias also reports that Orpheus visited the Thesprotian nekuomanteîon (IX, 30, 6) and that Heracles brought the white poplar (V, 14, 2-3, cf . X, 510) from Thesprotian Acheron into Greece. Evidence for northwest Greek localization has been found at Odyssey XXIV, 11 : the souls of the slain suitors pass by « a white rock », perhaps « the Leukadian cliff » from which Sappho leapt (see G. Nagy , op. cit. n. 23 , p. 223-262). See A. Heubeck , « Books XXIII–XXIV », in A. Heubeck , S. West & J. B. Hainsworth (eds), A Commentary on Homer’s Odyssey, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1992, vol. 3, p. 360, with D. Ogden , op. cit. n. 11 , p. 44 ; H.‑G. Nesselrath , « “ Where the Lord of the Sea Grants Passage to Sailors through the Deep-Blue Mere No More ” : The Greeks and the Western Seas », G&R 52 (2005), p. 154. The shades first pass Oceanus, however. R. G. Edmonds III, « Underworld, Topography of », in M. Finkelberg (ed.) The Homer Encyclopedia , Malden / Oxford, Blackwell, 2011, vol. 3, p. 909, links the « white rock » of XXIV, 11 to the rock by underworld rivers at X, 515.

30 E. g ., G. L. Huxley, « Odysseus and the Thesprotian Oracle of the Dead », PP 13 (1958), p. 246-247 ; W. Burkert, Greek Religion , Cambridge, Blackwell (English translation by J. Raffan), 1985, p. 114 ; G. Crane, Calypso : Backgrounds and Conventions of the Odyssey, Frankfurt, Athenäum, 1988, p. 93 ; J. Marks, Zeus in the Odyssey, Washington / Cambridge, Center for Hellenic Studies, 2008, p. 102 ; S. West, « Odyssean Stratigraphy », in O. Andersen & D. T. T. Haug (eds), Relative Chronology in Early Greek Epic Poetry , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 129-130. See A. Heubeck, op. cit. n. 4 , p. 75, for further bibliography. See D. Ogden , op. cit. n. 11 , p. 43-60, on the Acheron nekuomanteîon .

31 D. Ogden , op. cit. n. 11 , p. XXIV-XXV and 43-64, with D. Ogden, « How “ Western ” were the Ancient Oracles of the Dead ? », in L. Breglia & A. Moleti (eds), op. cit. n. 10 , p. 231-236. On Odysseus associated with Avernus by the Classical Period, see E. D. Phillips, « Odysseus in Italy », JHS 73 (1953), p. 56 ; 59-60 ; 67. L. Antonelli , op. cit. n. 2 , p. 221-222, argues for a Euboean role in localization of the Odyssean Underworld at Thesprotian Acheron and beyond.

32 Cf . Iliad II, 749-750 ; XVI, 234-235 ; Odyssey XIV, 327-328 = XIX, 296-297, with particular reference to the oracle at Dodona, on which see H. W. Parke , The Oracles of Zeus : Dodona, Olympia, Ammon , Oxford, Blackwell, 1967, p. 11-13 ; 20-33.

33 For the possibility of a Homeric conception of Pylus (« Gate ») of western Greece as the gates of Hades, see G. Nagy, op. cit. n. 23 , p. 226, with Iliad V, 397. J. Marks , op. cit. n. 30 , p. 101, argues that the Odyssey ’s failure to link the Cyclopes or Thrinacia to Sicily despite references to the island (XX, 383 ; XXIV, 211 ; 307 ; 366 ; 389) results from pan-Hellenic suppression of local traditions.

34 See R. J. Clark, Catabasis : Vergil and the Wisdom-Tradition , Amsterdam, B. R. Grüner, 1978, p. 54-72, for a survey.

35 See M. L. West, « Odyssey and Argonautica », CQ 55 (2005), p. 39-64. At Odyssey XII, 70 Circe mentions that the Argo passed through the wandering rocks, but this serves rather to distinguish Odysseus’ journey from that of the Argo, cf . J. S. Burgess, op. cit. n. 14 , p. 273-274 .

36 Crete is often featured in the disguised hero’s tales. See S. Reece, « The Cretan Odyssey : A Lie Truer than Truth », AJP 115 (1994), p. 157-173 ; S. West, op. cit. n. 30 , p. 125.

37 G. Danek , Epos und Zitat : Studien zu den Quellen der Odyssee , Vienna, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1998, p. 215-216 ; J. Marks , op. cit. n. 30 , p. 89-92, provides excellent discussion.

38 G. Danek , Ibid. , explores the Odyssey ’s relation to alternative or competing narratives. Cf . J. S. Burgess, The Death and Afterlife of Achilles , Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009, which argues for the allusive presence of pre-Homeric myth in the Iliad .

41 Ibid. , p. 260-261. D. Ogden, op. cit. n. 11 , p. 61-74, convincingly argues that no cave in the area was connected with the nekuomanteîon . The amateur populizer R. Paget , In the Footsteps of Orpheus : The Story of the Finding and Identification of the Lost Entrance to Hades, the Oracle of the Dead, the River Styx and the Infernal Regions of the Greeks , London, Hale, 1967, claimed that tunnels and water channels under Baiae were the cave and the « Styx ».

44 F. L. zu Stolberg, Travels through Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Sicily , London, G. G. & J. Robinson (English translation by T. Holcroft), 1797, vol. 3, p. 365.

45 F. L. zu Stolberg , Ibid. , vol. 2, p. 438, translating P. Clüver on Avernus ; further on Avernus, see vol. 2, p. 425 and 435-445 ; vol. 3, p. 9-22 and 53-54.

47 V. Bérard , L’ Odyssée . Poésie homérique , Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1924. The localization books are Les Phéniciens et l’ Odyssée, Paris, Armand Colin, 1902-1903, and Les Navigations d’Ulysse , Paris, Armand Colin, 1927-1929, in four volumes. An appendix to V. Bérard, Dans le sillage d’Ulysse , Paris, Armand Colin, 1933, conveniently summarizes his otherwise verbosely expressed views.

48 V. Bérard, Les Phéniciens et l’ Odyssée, Paris, Armand Colin, 1902-1903, p. 312-329 ; Les Navigations d’Ulysse , Paris, Armand Colin, 1929, vol. 4, p. 346-374. E. D. Phillips, op. cit. n. 31 , p. 161-162, finds V. Bérard’s localization in western Italy of interest.

49 V. Bérard, Les Phéniciens et l’ Odyssée, Paris, Armand Colin, 1902-1903, p. 313-319 ; Les Navigations d’Ulysse , Paris, Armand Colin, 1929, vol. 4, p. 361-363.

50 V. Bérard , Dans le sillage d’Ulysse , Paris, Armand Colin, 1933, publishes the photos of Frédéric Boissonnas, who accompanied him on some travels.

52 T. Severin, The Ulysses Voyage , London, Hutchison, 1987 p. 143-150. The great travel writer Patrick Leigh Fermor has a brief section in which he visits the « cave of Hades » at Cape Tainaron ( Mani . Travels in the Southern Peloponnese , New York, Murray, 1 958, p. 129-132). His local guide actually takes him to a seaside cave, not the underground cavern associated with the nekuomanteîon . P. L. Fermor’s evocative prose does reward us with a vivid description of his swim in the sea cave, as well as a brief and rather misleadingly vague summary of the cape’s association with heroic catabases (for Odysseus, he prefers Thesprotian Acheron).

58 The descent was traditionally at the fountain Cyane near Syracuse. See, e. g. Diodorus Siculus V, 3-4 ; Cicero, Verres IV, 107, with D. Ogden , op. cit. n. 8 , p. 108-109.

60 On theories of Homeric hinting by ancient historians and Strabo, see L. Kim , op. cit. n. 28 , p. 30-35 ; 51.

61 See J. S. Burgess , « Belatedness in the Travels of Odysseus », in F. Montanari & A. Rengakos (eds), op. cit. n. 14 , p. 269-290.

62 To cite skilled Unitarian studies of Book XI of the Odyssey , see G. Crane, op. cit. n. 30 ; O. Tsagarakis, Studies in Odyssey XI , Stuttgart, Steiner, 2000, and S. West , op. cit. n. 30 . G. Crane and O. Tsagarakis well survey potential influences, including necromancy, but defend the episode’s poetic coherence. S. West acknowledges problems in order to trace how Homer changed his text over time.

63 I thank the student researchers who have worked on my « In the Wake of Odysseus » website, with particular gratitude for the research of Hana Carrozza, Maya Chakravorty, and Tim Perry for this study. I am grateful for funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

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Jonathan S. Burgess

University of Toronto

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The legendary story of Odysseus

The word Odyssey has come to mean a journey of epic proportions. The word comes from Homer's epic poem The Odyssey , written in the 8th century BC and it is a sequel to Homer's other epic poem, The Iliad , which describes the last days of the great Trojan War. The Odyssey speaks of Odysseus' adventures that delay by a decade the return to his beloved homeland, Ithaca .

The Odyssey was probably a popular story transmitted down the generations orally, with Homer writing down the story in one narrative. The story is told by Homer in a flashback format and narrates the legendary journey of king Odysseus to return home, to his palace and family, after the Trojan War had ended.

Discover the myth of Odysseus

Odysseus, a legendary man.

According to Homer, Laertes and Anticleia were the parents of Odysseus. He was married to Penelope and they gave birth to a son, Telemachus. Odysseus was often called "Odysseus the Cunning" because of his clever and quick mind. Autolycus, his grandfather, was a famous skilled thief in the Peloponnese . The Romans transformed the name Odysseus to Ulysses and that is how he is mostly known today all over the world.

Odysseus had a proud and arrogant character. He was the master of disguise in both appearance and voice. He also excelled as a military commander and ruler, as is evident from the role he played in ensuring to the Greeks the victory over Troy, giving thus an end to the long Trojan War.

The fall of Troy

All began the day Paris of Troy abducted Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. Enraged, Menelaus called upon all kings of Greece, including Odysseus, as all had once vowed to defend the honour of Helen, if someone ever tried to insult her. Odysseus, however, tried to escape the promise made to Menelaus by feigning insanity. Agamemnon, the brother of Menelaus proved Odysseus to be lying and henceforth the legendary warrior set out for Troy, along with Agamemnon the lord of men, Achilles the invincible, Nestor he wise and Teucer the master archer, as they were called.

Ten years had passed since the Greeks attacked Troy and they were all still there, outside the strong walls, fighting with the locals, who proved themeselves brave warriors. In the tenth year of the war, Odysseus the Cunning, the most trusted advisor and counsellor of king Agamemnon, the leader of the Greeks, devised a plan to deceive the Trojans. He wanted to make them believe that the Greeks had lost their nerves and had returned back to Greece.

In the middle of the night, the Greeks deserted Troy leaving only a gigantic wooden horse on wheels outside the gates of the city. When dawn broke, the Trojans were surprised to see no Greek army surrounding them, only a wooden horse. They indeed believed that the Greeks had gone and had left this horse as a gift to the gods, to give them a good sea trip. Thus they wheeled the wooden horse into their city and started revelry to celebrate the end of the war.

However, unknown to the Trojans, Odysseus had built a hollow into the wooden horse to hide there a few Greek warriors. This plan was the only way to gain entry to the city that had held its defences for so many years. Now that they were inside Odysseus and his men went out the dummy horse and slaughtered the unsuspecting guards. Then they opened the city gates and allowed the entire Greek army, who were hiding some miles away, to enter the city. Thus, thanks to the plan of Odysseus, the Greeks won the Trojan War. With the war over, Odysseus and his men set sail for their homeland, Ithaca, but in the end only one of them would come back.

The long journey home

The journey home for Odysseus and his fellows would be long and full of adventures. Their eyes would see all the strange of the world and Odysseus would come home with more memories and experiences than any other person in the world.

The Cicones

Odysseus and his legion set sail from Troy aboard twelve ships. Tranquil waters facilitated the movement of the ships and they were well out to sea. After a few days, they sighted land and Eurylochus, second-in-command to Odysseus, convinced him to weigh anchor, go ashore and devastate the city with the assurance that they would not be harmed.

Seeing the ships weigh anchor and thenceforth the warriors coming ashore, the Ciconians, the local residents, fled to the nearby mountains. Odysseus and his men plundered and looted the empty city. However, the men of Odysseus resisted his efforts to get them back aboard the ship immediately and after a hearty meal accompanied by wine that flew like water, they fell asleep on the shore.

Before the first light, the Ciconians returned with their fierce neighbors and set upon the warriors, killing as many as they could. Odysseus and his men beat a hasty retreat to their ships but heavy damages had already been inflicted on their number. Berating himself for having listened to Eurylochus and thereafter losing so many valuable men, Odysseus and Eurylochus fought with each other but they were separated by their fellow-men and peace was once again established amidst the warriors.

The Lotus-Eaters

Rounding to the south, Odysseus and his men were blown off-course, towards the land of the Lotus-Eaters. While Odysseus was scouting around the land, some of his men mingled with the natives and ate the local lotus grown on the land. Soon, everything went hazy and the men found themselves under the heavy influence of some intoxicant that caused them to fall asleep.

The lotus flowers they had eaten were narcotic in nature and made them forget all about their family and homeland. These men wanted to stay on this land and eat lotus for the rest of their lives. They refused to go home. Desperately, Odysseus and some other men had to carry them back to the ship. Without delay, they set sail and upon waking these men had to be bound to the masts to prevent them from jumping into the sea and swimming back to the shore to consume the lotus flower that they had got so addicted to.

Polyphemus the Cyclops

After sailing for many weeks without further adventure, the warriors chanced upon a strange land. Odysseus and a handful of his men went ashore to search the land.

A few minutes walk from the ships brought them to the mouth of a gigantic cave. Curious, the warriors entered the cave and found it to be the habitation of some gigantic being. Further on, they found flocks of sheep inside the cave and being hungry, they slaughtered a few of them and feasted on their flesh. Unknown to them, this was the lair of Polyphemus the Cyclops and this land was the home of the gigantic Cyclopes.

Returning to his cave, Polyphemus blocked the entrance with a huge rock, as he usually did. Odysseus and his men ran towards the entrance but they were dismayed at the sight that greeted them. Here was a huge rock preventing their escape from a being that was even bigger than the rock. Laying his only eye on the warriors, Polyphemus asked who they were. Without revealing their identity or mission, Odysseus told Polyphemus they were sea-farers who had lost their way and had come ashore looking for food.

Unhappy that his sheep had been killed and eaten by these men, Polyphemus refused them to exit his cave. Every day he made a meal of two brave warriors, dashing their brains out on the walls of the cave and chewing them raw. Unable to bear this act of cruelty, Odysseus devised a plan to get them out. He had with him a gourd of strong wine and one day he offered it to Polyphemus, who grabbed it and poured it down his throat greedily. The wine made the Cyclops drowsy and within minutes he fell asleep. Odysseus and his remaining men took a red-hot poker from the fire-place and thrust it into the Cyclop's only eye, blinding him.

The sleeping giant awoke in shock, howling in pain and bellowing in rage, demanding to know who had done this. Yet again Odysseus presence of mind proved of the very essence and he shouted out that his name was "Nobody". Polyphemus, now on his feet and stumbling around created such a commotion that his fellow Cyclops came running to his lair to see what had happened. When they stood outside the cave and asked Polyphemus what had happened, the Cyclops said that Nobody had blinded him. The other Cyclopes laughed out loud, called him an idiot and told him there was nothing they could do for "Nobody" had hurt him.

The following morning, Odysseus and his men strapped themselves to the belly of the sheep and in this manner, they escaped when Polyphemus let his flocks out of his lair to graze. Once outside, the warriors ran to the safety of their ships. Odysseus, however, priding his brilliance, could not resist taunting Polyphemus. The moment they set sail, he shouted out to the Cyclops that it was he, Odysseus, who had blinded him. Enraged and unable to see, Polyphemus threw a massive rock in the direction of the voice. Luckily for Odysseus, it fell short of its target for else his ship would have been smashed. Polyphemus cried out to his father, the sea-god Poseidon, to avenge this ignominy and hereafter Odysseus became a sworn enemy of Poseidon.

The Bags of Aeolus

Fleeing the land of the Cyclopes, Odysseus found his ships nearing Aeolia, home of Aeolus, the god of the winds. Aeolus used to blow the wind over the sea and the land. After hearing of Odysseus' journey home, Aeolus gave him a bag full of winds that would guide him home safely. Odysseus set sail the seas once again and spent many sleepless nights guarding the bag until one day, too tired and overcome with fatigue, he fell asleep.

Curiosity overcame a couple of his men who had been awaiting the opportunity to grab the bag to see what their leader was guarding with his life. They got their chance the moment Odysseus fell asleep, as they were approaching the shore of Ithaca. Without a minute of hesitation, the two sailors opened the bag. The winds caught in the bag escaped and created a furious storm that drove the ships backwards. Sensing something wrong in the motion of the ship Odysseus awoke with a start only to find himself back at Aeolia. This time, Aeolus declined to give again the gift of the winds and a heartbroken Odysseus set out once again on the arduous journey back to Ithaca.

The Laestrygonians

Out of the darkness of night, an island was raising in the distance. This was Telepylos, an island with natural defences in the form of the cliffs and with only one narrow passage in. Each ship passed into the calm harbor surrounded by cliffs with the exception of Odysseus, who for some reason anchored it in the turbulent waters outside.

Two warriors went ashore to explore the island and they came across a girl who took them to her father. Nearing the castle, they saw a gigantic woman who called out to her husband. A giant man, her husband, came running out and snatching up one of the men devoured him alive. The other ran for his life and the entire race of giants that inhabited the land gave chase to him. At the harbor, Odysseus' men ran for cover but the giants smashed their ships with massive rocks and speared them alive. Only Odysseus managed to escape on his ship with some sailors on it since he had anchored it outside the island.

Circe the Enchantress

Having barely saved their lives, Odysseus and the men aboard the one surviving ship landed on the island, Aeaea, home to the powerful Circe, enchantress and powerful sorceress. With the help of strong magic and unknown to the warriors, Circe had already envisioned their arrival on her island. Some fellows of Odysseus who had been sent to explore the island, walked into the palace of Circe and saw her sitting on her magnificent throne, surrounded by wild animals who were once men. The beautiful enchantress, with one touch of her stick, turned the mighty warriors into pigs.

With the help of god Hermes, Odysseus drank a certain herb that protected him from Circe's magic. When she saw him, the sorceress found her spells to be ineffective and on his demand that his men be turned back into human form, the sorceress agreed but only if Odysseus shared her bed-chamber. Odysseus consented and moreover, he and his men spent a whole year on this island. At the end of that year, Odysseus decided to depart from Aeaea and continue his way home. Circe, having the ability to predict the future, gave him instructions on what to do afterwards. She advised him to go to the Underworld and meet the blind prophet Tiresius to ask him for instructions.

The Journey to the Underworld

No alive man had ever entered the Underworld. But brave Odysseus decided to do so, in order to continue his journey and reach Ithaca at last! Odysseus and his men made sacrifices to god Hades by the shores of the River Acheron and Odysseus alone took the path to the dark Underworld. Tiresius appeared to Odysseus and the blind prophet told him that in order to get home he had to pass between Scylla and Charybdis, two great monsters.

Leaving Hades, Odysseus and his men sailed for many days without sight of land. Not before long, though, strange disquieting sounds reached the ears of the men aboard the ship. The sounds tugged at their hearts and made them want to weep with joy. Odysseus at once realized that they were approaching the Sirens that Circe had warned him about.

The sorceress had told him to block every man's ears with wax for if any were to hear the song of the Sirens, he would surely jump off the ship, go close to the Sirens and the winged monsters would kill them. Odysseus did exactly that with his men, but he himself wanted to hear their strange song. He thus ordered his sailors to tie him up to the mast so he could not jump into the sea in an attempt to meet the Sirens.

With their ears blocked with wax, the men heard nothing and the ship passed near the Sirens. Suddenly, Odysseus wanted to get free of his bonds and swim towards the Sirens for their song had just become clear and it was very beautiful and captivating. But the ropes were very tight and fortunately he could not untie himself. His fellows could hear neither the Sirens neither the screams of their leader, who was praying them to untie him. As the ship was sailing away from the shore, the song of the Sirens was fading out.

Scylla and Charybdis

Following the advice of Tiresius, Odysseus chose the route that would take him on one side close to Scylla, a six-headed monster who had once been a woman and on the other side Charybdis, a violent whirlpool. Tiresius had advised Odysseus to sacrifice six men to Scylla so they might pass through without losing any more men.

Approaching the mouth of the strait between Scylla and Charybdis the warriors shrank back in fear for on either side were violent deaths. Only Odysseus was quiet, sad that he would have to lose six brave warriors but he was ready to do so, in order to save the others. As they passed by Scylla, she picked up six men and allowed the rest to pass through safely. Odysseus never forgot the screams of the men he had to sacrifice and to the very end of his days he lamented his betrayal. He had not informed a single warrior of his motive. Then his ship passed from Charibdys but managed to survive.

The Cattle of Helios

Weary and tired from the ordeal, Odysseus ordered his ship to weigh anchor at the island of Thrinacia. This island was sacred to the sun god Helios whose cattle grazed freely here. Even though Odysseus had been warned by Tiresius and Circe not to harm any of the cattles, his men defied him and set about slaughtering and feasting on them.

Immediately Helios complained to Zeus, vowing to take vengeance by sending the sun down to Hades, never to rise again. Zeus in response sank Odysseus ship with a thunderbolt as it was leaving Thrinacia and destroyed every man aboard with the exception of the valiant leader. Somehow, a floundering Odysseus was swept past Scylla and Charybdis and washed up ashore on an unknown island.

Seven years with Calypso

The island that Odysseus found himself was Ogygia and it was there where he spent seven years with the nymph Calypso, who found him unconscious on the beach. She promised him immortality in exchange for his love, but soon Odysseus sensed once again the desire to see Ithaca and his family, his unfortunate wife and his son who would have grown up till then.

Even a beautiful and powerful goddess like Calypso couldn't fill this feeling of the unaccomplished that Odysseus was always carrying into his heart. However, Calypso had fallen in love with him and wouldn't let him go. On the behalf of Zeus, Hermes appeared before Calypso and told her to let Odysseus go. One day finally, on a raft that he built himself, Odysseus set off for Ithaca with a wooden float but once again he was caught in the middle of a storm and shore to another strange land.

Meanwhile on Ithaca

Telemachus, the son of Odysseus who had just turned twenty, decided to set out in search of his long-gone father. His mother had woes of her own. She was constantly plagued by suitors asking for her hand, since ten years had passed from the end of the Trojan War and her husband had not returned. Day after day, she fended off their advances with an ingenious trick. She told the suitors that she was weaving a burial shroud for Odysseus' father and only when it was complete, would she even think to marry anyone of them.

Penelope's trick was to weave the cloth in the daytime and undo it at night, so the suitors were kept waiting indefinitely, until her husband would return. However, a chambermaid betrayed her to the suitors and soon they were back, asking for her hand and the kingdom of Ithaca.

Knowing that his mother was successfully keeping her 108 suitors away, Telemachus decided to set out on his quest. Aided by goddess Athena and along with some of his faithful warriors, he went to Sparta to meet Menelaus and ask him if he had any news from his father. Unfortunately, Menelaus knew nothing and Telemachus disappointed returned to Ithaca.

The Phaeacians

The land of the Phaeacians, which the historians believe is modern Corfu, was where Odysseus found himself after a terrible storm. Nafsica, the local princess, found Odysseus exhausted and naked on the shore and led him to the palace of her father. While in the court of King Alcinous and Queen Arete, he heard the bard Demodocus sing of the Trojan War.

Odysseus was overcome with grief at hearing stories about the war and of the Trojan Horse that had been his invention. It was then that the emotions came crashing down on him and he broke down into tears. The people gathered around him asked who he really was and why the story affected him. It was then that Odysseus revealed his true identity and his struggles to reach Ithaca.

After listening to his ordeals, the Phaeacians gave him their fastest ship, the best of their provisions and bid him good luck on his way home. And so it was that the hero finally returned to Ithaca, eager to see his wife Penelope and son Telemachus, from both of whom he had been separated for two whole decades.

Finally on Ithaca

The arrival of Odysseus on Ithaca went unnoticed and, in the guise of a beggar, he approached the palace. He first met his old servants and his beloved son, Telemachus. From them, he learnt about the suitors that have been bothering Penelope for so long. Odysseus, still in the form of a beggar, he met his wife, who didn't recognize him.

He told her about her husband's bravery and how he had helped in winning the Trojan War. These tails brought tears to her eyes. Calming herself, she approached the suitors who were always hanging around the palace and set them a simple task. Penelope would marry any one of them who could string Odysseus' bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axe-handles joined together.

The suitors pushed and shoved each other to be the first to succeed but little did they know that the task they faced was impossible. Stringing the bow that belonged to Odysseus was not an easy task for it required not brute strength but dexterity. One by one, each suitor tried his luck but to no avail. Finally, Odysseus picked up the bow, stringing it with ease and in one fluid motion letting fly an arrow that pierced all the twelve axe-handles. After that, there was chaos.

Revealing his true identity, Odysseus began massacring the suitors and, aided by Telemachus and the swineherd Eumaeus, they had soon cleared the court of all 108 of them. The suitors were killed and the maid-servants, who had made themselves the pleasure slaves of the suitors, were all hung. When Penelope heard the massacre, she run to the court. Fazed by the sudden spate of events, she refused to believe that this strange beggar was indeed her long lost husband Odysseus, so she set up another test for him.

In front of Odysseus, Penelope ordered the palace servants to remove the bed from her bed-chamber to the hall outside. On hearing this, Odysseus bristled with anger and opposed the idea, saying that this bed had been fashioned out of a living oak by his own hand and none, save a god, none in the whole world could move it. Joyful, Penelope rushed to Odysseus and hugged him, with big tears in her eyes, for she was reassured that this man was her beloved husband returned to her. Only Odysseus knew the secret about their bed and his words were the proof she needed to believe him.

The real end

This, however, was not the end of Odysseus' journey. Prophet Tiresius had forewarned him that once he had reasserted himself as King of Ithaca, he should travel inland holding the oar of a ship. Indeed, after a few years, Odysseus crowned Telemachus King of Ithaca and left him and his wife Penelope to travel on the opposite inland.

Many days did he wander with the oar in hand seeking for people who would not know what it was but wherever he went, people recognized it as an oar. One day, far inland, opposite the shores of Ithaca, Odysseus came across those people who had never seen the sea and hence did not know what an oar was. There it was that Odysseus finished his life travel and took a local princess for his bride. For many years, he lived amongst these people and it was here that he breathed his last, far from the sea, his family and his beloved Ithaca.

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Odyssey/Books/ 11

Journey to the Underworld [1]

B ook XI of the Odyssey shows Odysseus’ symbolic death and rebirth: a journey into the psyche of Odysseus in which he learns both about his past and future and comes to terms with his responsibilities as a leader, a father, a husband, and a hero. Perhaps most importantly Odysseus learns from the shades of his past the wisdom he needs to return home safely — to defeat his own selfish desires and those of his enemies. This descent is a personal one for Odysseus; though his crew joins him, they do not make it home, and they seem to represent an aspect of Odysseus’ psyche that he cannot control — free radicals that will eventually have to be dealt with in one way or another. While Odysseus meets many figures from his past and his culture, there are a few that hold key lessons for Odysseus.

His first lesson is one of his responsibility to his crew from the dead Elpenor . Odysseus and his men left Aiaia in such haste that they did not realize that Elpenor was not among them. Even men who are not heroes deserve respect; even those who do not die the deaths of heroes are a part of the community. So much like Gilgamesh ’s lesson: leaders are judged by how they treat their community. This is an important lesson for Odysseus who shows imprudence toward his crew’s safety and well-being in several instances before this point, precipitating the death of many of them. Elpenor stands for those who served under Odysseus whom he owes much of his own success and survival even at the cost of their own lives.

From Teiresias, Odysseus learns of his immediate future, one that will be filled with anguish and the reason for that anguish: he blinded the son of Poseidon. If we consider Teiresias’ predictions, they are not really anything Odysseus did not either know, or could figure out. Perhaps Teiresias represents Odysseus’ buried unconscious: the monsters that he does not necessarily wish to face, but must in order to return home safely. After learning of the irate Poseidon, Odysseus receives two imperatives from Teiresias: you must deny yourself and restrain your shipmates if you are to survive the wrath of the sea god. Do not let your men touch the cattle of Helios, or it will spell destruction for ship and crew. This imperative is probably the most important for Odysseus, as it recalls Odysseus’ pride in telling the Cyclops exactly how blinded him, not practicing his characteristic shrewdness. If Odysseus is to land again on Ithaca, he must eschew the impulses that seem to make a great warrior like Achilles, and practice a cunning that will allow for a surreptitious return, not necessarily characteristic of a great warrior. While Odysseus will be successful with this first directive, he ultimately fails in the second, allowing his crew to meet their doom.

Odysseus learns, too, of the suitors ransacking his house and courting Penelope; he must make them atone in blood — “in open combat or by stealth” — for their perfidy. Odysseus will cunningly employ the latter before allowing the suitors to know that the lord of the manor has returned, unlike the unfortunate Agamemnon. Finally, Odysseus learns that his return to Ithaca will not mean the end of his wanderings: he will have another quest that will take him again from his home.

After learning of his future, Odysseus speaks with the shade of his mother Anticlea. From his mother, Odysseus learns of Penelope’s faithfulness, Telemachus’ duties as a magistrate (she died before Telemachus own coming of age), and Laertes’, Odysseus’s father, retirement to the country, unable to face the seeming fall of the house of Odysseus. Anticlea herself could not endure Odysseus’ absence precipitated her early death. Her words add to Odysseus’ pain and his urgency to return home to set his lands in order. Yet, in his despair, Anticlea warns him that he must “crave sunlight soon” — yes, all will die, but now is not Odysseus’ time. He must “Note all things strange / seen here, to tell your lady in after days.” [2]

While Odysseus meets many more shades — Heracles, Agamemnon, Sisyphus, Ajax, among others — one in particular strikes me as most important: Achilles. The greatest Greek warrior becomes the mouthpiece of the Odyssey in his brief interaction with Odysseus. The hero of the Trojan War asks Odysseus what he is doing where “the dimwitted dead are camped forever, / the after images of used-up men.” [3] The dead, indeed, are mute until Odysseus gives them blood; Achilles is no exception, yet the hero’s speech is more of an admonishment, an echo of Anticlea’s carpe diem . Odysseus’ answer to Achilles is flippant: you were the greatest, so fortunate in life that surely death must not pain you so much. Achilles speaks what could be the motto of the Odyssey :

Indeed, Achilles learns a wisdom in death that his rage blinded him to in life: nothing matters but life, not the petty differences of jealous men, not the the reckless rage of a wronged friend. It’s better to be alive and in bondage than just a mute shade. While Odysseus does not react to this speech explicitly, it does become a part of his drive to survive and overcome. Odysseus, unlike Achilles, is a survivor, and in order to for family and country to remain significant, one must live in order to maintain them. Death brings only silence, a grim view of a Greek afterlife; no Elysian Fields here.

While Odysseus hears much in the underworld, only the remaining books of the Odyssey illustrate what he learns, if anything. How is Odysseus reborn as a hero? What finally does he bring home to his community and to himself?

↑ Originally written on 09/21/2003 @ 15:27:52.
↑ XI.253–54
↑ XI.560–61

Odysseus’s Descent into the Underworld

By: Alexander Schmid July 11, 2023

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Underworld in The Odyssey: How It Affects Our Hero
Odysseus journey to the Underworld through the River of Ocean located on the island of the Cimmerians. Here he pours libations and performs sacrifices, pouring blood into a cup to attract the souls to appear. The souls appear one by one and start with Elpenor, one of his crewmen who broke his neck and died after sleeping on a roof drunk the ...
Katabasis
Odysseus consults the soul of the prophet Tiresias in his katabasis during Book 11 of The Odyssey.. A katabasis or catabasis (Ancient Greek: κατάβασις, romanized: katábasis, lit. 'descent'; from κατὰ (katà) 'down' and βαίνω (baínō) 'go') is a journey to the underworld.Its original sense is usually associated with Greek mythology and Classical mythology more broadly ...
What occurs in the Underworld in The Odyssey?
In The Odyssey, Odysseus visits the Underworld to seek guidance from the prophet Tiresias. Tiresias warns him about Poseidon's wrath and advises against harming the sun god's flocks. Odysseus also ...
The Odyssey Book 11 Summary & Analysis
The Odyssey: Book 11. Odysseus continues telling his tale to Alcinous and the Phaeacians. When he and his men reached the entrance to the world of the dead, they did exactly as Circe said: they dug a trench, offered libations, and sacrificed a ewe and a ram. Thousands of ghosts appeared when the blood started flowing.
The Odyssey Book 10 Summary & Analysis
The Odyssey: Book 10. Odysseus continues his story to the Phaeacians: The men's next stop was the Aeolian island, home to the god of the winds. They stayed with Aeolus for a month, and his parting gift to Odysseus was a sack holding the winds. Aeolus freed the West Wind to blow Odysseus's ship toward home, the men sailed for nine days, and on ...
Odysseus
Helios tells Zeus what happened and demands Odysseus' men be punished or else he will take the sun and shine it in the Underworld. Zeus fulfills Helios' demands by causing a shipwreck during a thunderstorm in which all but Odysseus drown. ... In folkloristics, the story of Odysseus's journey back to his native Ithaca and wife Penelope ...
The Odyssey: The Underworld
How do you get to the underworld and what can you seek once you get there? The Odyssey introduces this leg of the epic journey into epic literature. It becom...
In The Odyssey , what does Odysseus learn from Agamemnon in the Underworld?
Odysseus journeys to the underworld to seek advice from the ghost of the prophet Tiresias about how to get back to Ithaca. While he is there, other ghosts flock around him, and he speaks to many ...
The 'Nekyia'
Abstract. This chapter offers an analysis of the beginning of Odysseus' Underworld journey in Odyssey 11. It follows closely the action as it develops in Odyssey 11 and it introduces the reader to the actual poetics of Hades through the discussion of the first encounters the hero has in Hades with his former companion Elpenor, the seer Teiresias, and his mother Antikleia.
The Underworld
The Underworld Sources A whole book of the "Odyssey" - the 11 th - is dedicated to Odysseus' descent into the Underworld; analogously, Virgil devotes the 6 th book of the "Aeneid" to Aeneas' similar journey. See Also: Hades, Minos, Rhadamanthus, Aeacus, Aeneas, Charon, Cerberus, Tartarus
Odysseus: Greek Hero of the Odyssey
Odysseus' journey home was as tormenting as it was eventful thanks to the influence of the gods. Following Homeric tradition, the Odyssean gods were swayed by emotions and took easily to offense. ... When the crew reached the Underworld, countless wraiths emerged from Erebus: "brides, and unwedded youths…toil-worn old men…tender maidens ...
In book 11 of The Odyssey , how does Odysseus access the underworld?
This is how they will get there, then. His ship will take him to the proper place, and, there, Odysseus must secure it and go, on foot, into the Underworld. He must cross the rivers that border it ...
Journeys to the Underworld in Classical Literature and Culture
Odysseus makes the perilous journey to Hades to interrogate the ghosts of his companions, also encountering his dead mother. The underworld descent and return was familiar enough in fifth-century Athens to become the stuff of comedy in the hand of Aristophanes, whose Frogs centres around the journey of Dionysus to the underworld (which turns ...
The Odyssey Book IX
XI.628. So Odysseus finally returned to his men and his ship, and sailed away from the Underworld through Oceanus, back to Circe for more refreshment, comfort, a burial, and help to get home to Ithaca. His adventures were far from over. In Book IX of Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus (Ulysses) travels to the Underworld and speaks to ghosts to learn of ...
Localization of the Odyssey 's Underworld
7 Odysseus similarly questions Elpenor (57-58) about how he reached Hades by foot, which reminds one ; 7 The actual journey to Hades seems to proceed as foretold by Circe, though the direction of the guiding wind is not specified (XI, 10), and there is some additional information. Odysseus recalls that the ship sailed all day until the sun set (11-12), and then reached the « limits ...
Myth of the legendary Odysseus
The Journey to the Underworld. No alive man had ever entered the Underworld. But brave Odysseus decided to do so, in order to continue his journey and reach Ithaca at last! Odysseus and his men made sacrifices to god Hades by the shores of the River Acheron and Odysseus alone took the path to the dark Underworld.
Odyssey/Books/11
Journey to the Underworld. Book XI of the Odyssey shows Odysseus' symbolic death and rebirth: a journey into the psyche of Odysseus in which he learns both about his past and future and comes to terms with his responsibilities as a leader, a father, a husband, and a hero. Perhaps most importantly Odysseus learns from the shades of his past ...
How does Odysseus's suffering in the underworld relate to Hercules's
Like Achilles, one element of Odysseus's journey is to go to the Underworld which is, frankly, a disconcerting and haunting place to visit. The two men, thus, have endured similar sufferings.
Odysseus
In book XI of the Odyssey, Odysseus and his crew travel to the end of the world, to gain access to the underworld. When Odysseus' men finally convince him to begin making the journey towards home, Odysseus consults Circe, a sorceress, for a way back to Ithaca, their final destination. She tells them that they have to sail to Hades, in the ...
Odysseus's encounters in the Land of the Dead in The Odyssey
The most significant figure Odysseus encounters in the underworld (Book 11 of the Odyssey) is Achilles, the central character from Homer's Iliad. Achilles, a demigod, was the greatest Greek warrior.
Odysseus's Descent into the Underworld
Approximately halfway through his journey home from Troy, Odysseus is told that he must descend into the Underworld. Curiously, when Odysseus is told this, his first reaction is to cry (Ody.10.496-500).One might interpret this as indicating Odysseus's simple fear of death because truly "No one has ever yet in a black ship gone all the way to Hades" (Ody.10.502).