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80 Learning Reflection Questions for Students

By Med Kharbach, PhD | Last Update: September 7, 2024

Reflection questions are an important way to boost students’ engagement and enhance their learning. You can use them to encourage students to ponder their experiences, understandings, and feelings about what they’ve learned, their future goals, and many more. In this post, I’ll share a wide variety of reflection questions to use in your class.

What are Reflection Questions?

Before we define reflection questions, let’s first discuss what reflection is. Citing ASCD, Purdue defines reflection as “a process where students describe their learning, how it changed, and how it might relate to future learning experiences”.

Based on this definition, reflection questions, are tools that prompt introspection and critical thinking. They empower students to questions their acquired knowledge and transform their experiences into meaningful understandings and personal growth. But this isn’t just based on my personal experience – research supports the idea that reflection plays a critical role in the learning process.

Studies show that when students pause to reflect on their learning journey—assessing their understanding, evaluating their performance, setting future goals, and analyzing their group work—it leads to increased self-awareness , responsibility for learning, and improved academic performance.

Importance of Reflection Questions in Learning

Reflection is an integral part of the learning process, and its importance for students cannot be overstated. It acts as a bridge between experiences and learning, transforming information into meaningful knowledge.

However, as Bailey and Rehman reported in the Harvard Business Review, to reap the benefits of reflection, one needs to make the act of reflecting a habit. You need to incorporate it in your daily practice and use both forms reflection in action (while being engaged in doing the action) and reflection on action (after the action has taken place).

The following are some of the benefits of integrating reflection questions in learning:

1. Boosts Self-Awareness

Reflection encourages students to think deeply about their own learning process. It prompts them to ask themselves questions about what they’ve learned, how they’ve learned it, and what it means to them.

This practice cultivates self-awareness, making students more conscious of their learning strengths, weaknesses, styles, and preferences. As students better understand their unique learning journey, they become more equipped to tailor their learning strategies in ways that work best for them.

2. Fosters Responsibility for Learning

When students reflect on their learning, they are actively involved in the process of their own education. This involvement fosters a sense of ownership and r esponsibility . It transforms students from passive recipients of knowledge to active participants in their learning journey. They start to recognize that the onus of learning lies with them, making them more committed and proactive learners.

3. Promotes Personal Growth

Reflection is not only about academic growth; it’s also about personal and professional development . When students reflect, they evaluate their actions, decisions, and behaviors, along with their learning.

This helps them identify not only what they need to learn but also what they need to do differently. They gain insights into their personal growth, such as improving their time management, being more collaborative, or handling stress better. This promotes the development of life skills that are crucial for their future.

4. Enhances Critical Thinking

Reflection also enhances critical thinking skills. When students reflect, they analyze their learning experiences, break them down, compare them, and draw conclusions. This practice of critical analysis helps them embrace a questioning attitude and therefore fosters the development of their critical thinking abilities.

5. Facilitates Continuous Improvement

Reflection is a self-regulatory practice that helps students identify areas of improvement. By reflecting on what worked, what didn’t, and why, students can pinpoint the areas they need to focus on. This paves the way for continuous improvement , helping them to become lifelong learners.

Tips to Incorporate reflection questions in your teaching

Here are few tips to help you integrate reflection questions in your teaching:

1. Incorporating Reflection Questions into Lessons

Introduce at the End of a Lesson: One of the most common times to use reflection questions is at the end of a lesson. This helps students to review and consolidate the key concepts they have just learned. For example, you might ask, “What was the most important thing you learned today?” or “What questions do you still have about the topic?”
Use in Class Discussions: You can also incorporate reflection questions into your classroom discussions to foster a deeper understanding of the topics at hand. These questions can push students to think beyond the surface level and engage with the material in a more meaningful way.
Incorporate in Assignments: Reflection questions can be included as part of homework assignments or projects. For instance, after a group project, you could ask, “How did your team work together?” or “What role did you play in the group, and how did it contribute to the final outcome?”

2. Choosing the Right Time to Use Reflection Questions

After Lessons: As mentioned above, reflection questions can be highly effective when used immediately after a lesson. This is when the information is still fresh in students’ minds, and they can easily connect the concepts they’ve learned.
End of the School Day: At the end of the school day, reflection questions can help students recall what they’ve learned across different subjects. This can help in connecting concepts across disciplines and promote broader understanding.
After a Project or Unit: When a project, assignment, or unit is completed, reflection questions can help students consider their performance, what they learned, what challenges they faced, and how they overcame those challenges. It’s an opportunity for them to recognize their growth over time and understand how they can improve in the future.
During Parent-Teacher Conferences: Reflection questions can also be useful during parent-teacher conferences. Teachers can share these reflections with parents to provide them with insights into their child’s learning process, strengths, and areas of improvement.

Reflection Questions for Understanding Concepts

What was the most important thing you learned in today’s lesson?
Can you summarize the main idea or theme of the lesson in your own words?
Was there anything you found confusing or difficult to understand? If so, what?
How does this concept relate to what we learned previously? Can you draw connections?
How would you explain this concept to a friend who missed the lesson?
What were the key points or steps in today’s lesson that helped you understand the concept?
If you could ask the teacher one question about today’s lesson, what would it be?
Can you provide an example of how this concept applies in real life?
Did today’s lesson change your perspective or understanding about the topic? If so, how?
What strategies or methods did you find helpful in understanding today’s lesson?

Reflection Questions for Self-Assessment

What was the most challenging part of the lesson/project for you, and how did you overcome that challenge?
What are some strengths you utilized in today’s lesson/project?
Are there any areas you think you could have done better in? What are they?
Did you meet your learning goals for today’s lesson/project? Why or why not?
What is something you’re proud of in your work today?
What learning strategies did you use today, and how effective were they?
If you were to do this lesson/project again, what would you do differently?
What steps did you take to stay organized and manage your time effectively during the lesson/project?
How well did you collaborate with others (if applicable) in today’s lesson/project?
On a scale of 1-10, how would you rate your effort on this lesson/project, and why?

Reflection Questions for Group Work and Collaboration

What role did you play in your group, and how did it contribute to the project’s outcome?
What were the strengths of your group? How did these strengths contribute to the completion of the project?
Were there any challenges your group faced? How were they resolved?
What did you learn from your group members during this project?
If you could change one thing about the way your group worked together, what would it be and why?
How did your group make decisions? Was this method effective?
What was the most valuable contribution you made to the group project?
What is one thing you would do differently in future group work?
Did everyone in your group contribute equally? If not, how did this impact the group dynamics and the final product?
What skills did you use during group work, and how can you further improve these skills for future collaboration?

Reflection Questions for Goal Setting

Based on your recent performance, what is one learning goal you would like to set for the next lesson/unit/project?
What specific steps will you take to achieve this goal?
What resources or support do you think you will need to reach your goal?
How will you know when you have achieved this goal? What will success look like?
What is one thing you could improve in the next lesson/unit/project?
What skills would you like to improve or develop in the next term?
What learning strategies do you plan to use in future lessons to help you understand the material better?
How do you plan to improve your collaboration with others (if applicable) in future projects or group tasks?
How can you better manage your time or stay organized in future lessons/projects?
How can you apply what you’ve learned in this lesson/unit/project to future lessons or real-world situations?

Reflection Questions for Students After a Project

What part of this project did you enjoy the most, and why?
What challenges did you face during this project, and how did you overcome them?
If you were to do this project again, what would you do differently?
What skills did you utilize for this project?
How does this project connect to what you’ve previously learned?

Reflection Questions Related to Application of Knowledge

How did you apply what you learned to solve a real-world problem?
In what ways did prior knowledge help you complete this task or project?
How did you adapt your knowledge to a new or unfamiliar situation?
What connections did you make between different subjects or concepts?
How did applying your knowledge enhance your understanding of the topic?
What challenges did you face when trying to apply what you learned?
How did your knowledge evolve as you worked through this task or experience?
In what ways did applying your knowledge help you think more critically or creatively?
How can you apply this knowledge in future situations, both inside and outside the classroom?
How did applying your knowledge deepen your appreciation for the subject matter?

Reflection Questions Related to Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

What steps did you take to analyze the problem before finding a solution?
How did you evaluate different perspectives or approaches to the problem?
What assumptions did you make while solving the problem, and were they valid?
How did you prioritize tasks or information when addressing the issue?
What strategies did you use to overcome challenges or obstacles during the process?
How did you determine the effectiveness of your solution?
What alternative solutions did you consider, and why did you choose the one you implemented?
How did you use evidence or data to support your reasoning?
In what ways did solving this problem help improve your critical thinking skills?
What would you do differently if you encountered a similar problem in the future?

Reflection Questions for Students at the End of the Year

What is the most significant thing you’ve learned this year?
Which areas have you seen the most growth in?
What was the most challenging part of the year for you, and how did you overcome it?
What are your learning goals for the next school year?
How have you changed as a learner over this school year?

Reflection Questions for Students After a Test

How well do you feel you prepared for the test?
What part of the test did you find most challenging and why?
Based on your performance, what areas do you need to focus on for future tests?
How did you handle the stress or pressure of the test?
What will you do differently to prepare for the next test?

Reflection Questions for Students After a Unit

What was the most important concept you learned in this unit?
How can you apply the knowledge from this unit to other subjects or real-life situations?
Were there any concepts in this unit you found confusing or difficult?
How does this unit connect to the overall course objectives?
What strategies helped you learn the material in this unit?

Reflection Questions for Students After Reading

What is the main idea or theme of the text?
How do the characters or events in the text relate to your own experiences?
What questions do you have after reading the text?
How has this reading changed your perspective on the topic?
What part of the text resonated with you the most, and why?

Reflection Questions for Students After a Semester

What are three significant things you’ve learned this semester?
What strategies did you use to stay organized and manage your time effectively?
How have you grown personally and academically this semester?
What challenges did you face this semester, and how did you overcome them?
What are your goals for the next semester?

Reflection Questions Related to Feedback and Improvement

How did you feel about the feedback you received, and why?
What specific actions did you take based on the feedback?
How did the feedback help you see areas where you can improve?
Were there any aspects of the feedback that surprised you? Why or why not?
How did you prioritize the suggestions for improvement in your work?
What strategies did you use to implement the feedback in your next steps?
How has receiving feedback influenced your approach to similar tasks in the future?
How do you ensure that you understand feedback clearly before acting on it?
What steps can you take to seek more constructive feedback in the future?
How do you track your progress in areas where you’ve received suggestions for improvement?

Final thoughts

Circling back to the heart of this post, reflection questions are undeniably a potent catalyst for meaningful learning. They are more than just queries thrown at the end of a lesson; they are introspective prompts that nudge learners to weave together the tapestry of their educational journey with threads of self-awareness, critical analysis, and personal growth. It’s through these questions that students can reflect on their academic canvas and begin to paint a picture of who they are and who they aspire to be in this ever-evolving world of knowledge.

References and Further Readings

Sources cited in the post:

Driving Continuous Improvement through Reflective Practice, stireducation.org
Practice-based and Reflective Learning, https://libguides.reading.ac.uk/
Don’t underestimate the Power of Self-reflection, https://hbr.org/
Reflective Practice, https://le.unimelb.edu.au/
Reflection in Learning, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1210944.pdf
The purpose of Reflection, https://www.cla.purdue.edu/
Self-reflection and Academic Performance: Is There A Relationship, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
Reflection and Self-awareness, https://academic.oup.com/

Related: The 8 Elements of Critical Thinking

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Meet Med Kharbach, PhD

Dr. Med Kharbach is an influential voice in the global educational technology landscape, with an extensive background in educational studies and a decade-long experience as a K-12 teacher. Holding a Ph.D. from Mount Saint Vincent University in Halifax, Canada, he brings a unique perspective to the educational world by integrating his profound academic knowledge with his hands-on teaching experience. Dr. Kharbach's academic pursuits encompass curriculum studies, discourse analysis, language learning/teaching, language and identity, emerging literacies, educational technology, and research methodologies. His work has been presented at numerous national and international conferences and published in various esteemed academic journals.

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The Importance of Self-Reflection in Learning

Janet Mizrahi is a continuing lecturer of professional writing at the University of California, Santa Barbara. She is also an author at BizCommBuzz.

I was brought into the cult of self-reflection kicking and screaming. I did not want to take time away from teaching course content so students could reflect upon course content. But I had a boss who continually preached reflection, metacognition, and transfer, and finally I began to see why. Now, like any convert, I am a disciple and include reflection in nearly every assignment because I have seen the positive results.

Self-reflection in learning means examining the way an individual learns. It implies that without thinking deeply about how we learn, we can never gain the insight necessary to correct poor habits and affirm good ones. This cognitive process of self-reflection therefore not only helps students improve learning outcomes, but fosters self-regulated learning, a cyclical process that involves planning to complete an academic task; using strategies to monitor progress; evaluating the outcome; and using that knowledge to guide future tasks.

One of the things I like most about reflections and self-regulated learning is that together, they help place the responsibility for learning squarely onto students. By asking them to think about what they could have done to improve their learning experience, they are forced to evaluate why waiting until the last minute to write a 10-page report did not yield their desired grade. Prodding students to think about what and how they have learned encourages them to consider learning objectives and their own part in developing knowledge.

Since I started using reflections, I have noted several positive outcomes:

I find that students accept my comments and critiques of their work and their grades without complaint, and I believe this is directly tied to the process of self-reflection
The act of critically examining their process and work product moves the focus away from a grade to what they’ve learned
Students are generally more aware of their work’s imperfections and that I am their mentor rather than their nemesis

It’s not easy for young people today to hear they’ve done something wrong, but it is my job to show them the correct way to write a business proposal or an email, for that matter. Before I used reflections, many students simply could not accept that their work could be less than perfect. That has definitely changed.

Reflections—with their inherent focus on the process of learning—can be especially appropriate at the end of the term, when we naturally want to bring students back to course objectives as they evaluate the course and what they have taken from it. At this point of the learning process, reflections encourage students to analyze what they’ve gained overall. [I’ve included some of the prompts I use at the end of this post.]

However, we can inject self-reflection into our classrooms in a number of ways at any time during the semester :

Discuss and Explain Reflection

Talk about why reflection is important and how it makes students into better learners not just in school but in life. Repeat the importance of reflection regularly during the course. You can even toss in a bit of Socrates: “ The unexamined life is not worth living,” most certainly wasn’t intended to apply to 21st century college students, but I think it works in this context.

Assign Reflections During Class Time

I have found that providing time during class for students to complete reflections on specific assignments yields better results. When students complete reflections at home, they have the tendency to dash them off without much thought. But in class, everyone is working on the same task, and I’m nosing around to make sure they stay on task. I also require students to turn in their reflections with their assignments and take points off if they are missing.

Accept Different Reflection Modalities

Some instructors leave the reflection modality up to the student. They accept video or audio responses from individuals, duos or triads and allow students to complete the reflection on their own time. As a writing instructor, it makes sense for me to use a written form for student reflections, but whichever model works for your field and class situation is the one to use. There is no wrong way to do this.

My Classroom Strategy

In my classes, I provide prompts for students to follow rather than allowing a free-floating brainstorm. Below are some of the questions I typically pose.

Explain your experience completing [X] and what you learned about tackling projects like this . This prompt can prod students to see where they went wrong.
What might you change about the way you approached [X] the next time you have a similar assignment? This question leads students to think about how they’ll change what they did to yield a better outcome in the future.
What do you know about [X] now that you did not know before completing the assignment? The response this elicits draws attention to the learner’s net gain and provides a sense of accomplishment.
What aspects of the assignment would you like me to focus on so I can provide better feedback? This probe helps students analyze what they think they need to work on and makes them more open to critiques.

In the end, self-reflection helps our students. But it also helps instructors see what our students believe they have learned—a win-win.

Want More Insights Like These?

Check out Janet’s additional articles packed with useful experience, tips and tricks you can incorporate into your own instruction.

Effectiviology

Reflective Learning: Thinking About the Way You Learn

Reflective learning involves actively monitoring and assessing your knowledge, abilities, and performance during the learning process, in order to improve the process and its associated outcomes.
For example, if you’re studying for a test, you can engage in reflective learning by asking yourself how well you understand each of the topics that you’re studying, and based on this figure out which topics you need to spend more time on.

Reflective learning can be beneficial in various ways and in various contexts, so it’s often worthwhile to engage in it. As such, in the following article you will learn more about reflective learning, and see how you can engage in it yourself, as well as how you can encourage others to engage in it.

Examples of reflective learning

An example of reflective learning is a person who starts a new hobby, and asks themself how well they’re learning the new information that comes with the hobby, whether there are any gaps in their knowledge, and which learning strategies they enjoy using the most.

Other examples of reflective learning appear in various domains, both in academia and outside of it. For instance:

A student taking a difficult course can ask themself which parts of the material they struggle with and why, in order to figure out what they should be focusing on, and how they can modify their learning to make it more effective.
An intern learning to perform various tasks at their new workplace can assess their ability to perform those tasks, so they can know which tasks they need to ask for help with.
An athlete who’s preparing for a competition can think about which learning strategies aren’t working well for them and why, and then either improve the way they use those strategies, or replacing those strategies with better ones.

The benefits of reflective learning

There are many potential benefits to reflective learning:

It can help you assess your situation , for example by prompting you to identify gaps in your knowledge and areas where you need to improve.
It can help you figure out how to improve your learning process , for example by prompting you to figure out which learning techniques work well for you and which ones don’t.
It can help you understand yourself better , for example by prompting you to consider what kind of assignments or information you struggle with the most.
It can help you develop your general metacognitive skills , by training you to think critically about how you learn.
It can increase your feelings of autonomy and control, by making you feel that you’re actively in charge of your learning process.
It can increase your motivation to learn, by making you feel more in control of the learning process, and by making that process more deliberate and effective.
It can improve your learning outcomes , both directly, by helping you modify the learning process, as well as indirectly, through the other benefits that it offers, such as increased motivation.

Accordingly, many studies have shown that reflective learning can lead to personal growth and improved learning. For example, one study found that encouraging students to reflect on what they’re learning and how they learn had a positive impact on their learning outcomes, and had additional benefits when it came to their critical thinking skills and their ability to organize their thoughts. Similarly, another study found that reflective learning helped students process the learning material and link it to material that they’ve encountered previously.

Furthermore, in addition to students, instructors can also benefit from the reflective learning that their students engage in. For example, reflective learning can prompt students to generate helpful feedback that instructors can then use to improve their teaching, for instance by identifying areas where students require more thorough explanations, or by identifying teaching methods that need to be modified.

Overall, reflective learning has various potential benefits, including helping learners assess their situation and improve their learning process, helping learners understand themselves and develop their metacognitive skills, and increasing learners’ feelings of autonomy and control, as well as their motivation. Accordingly, the importance of reflective learning is widely recognized in various fields , and it’s an important part of many education, training, and work programs.

How to be reflective in your learning

Being reflective in your learning means thinking about what you’re learning and how you’re learning it, in a way that helps you understand yourself and your learning better. There are several things that you can reflect on:

Your understanding of the material. For example, how well you understand certain concepts.
Your understanding of how to implement what you’ve learned. For example, when and how you can use a certain formula.
Your learning process. For example, how well certain learning strategies work for you.
Your abilities, preferences, and thoughts. For example, how difficult or enjoyable you find a certain topic.
Your goals. For example, where and when you plan to implement something that you’ve learned, and what you hope to achieve by doing so.

You can reflect on these things in various ways and to different degrees.

For example, in some cases, you might engage in quick and shallow reflection while you’re studying, by asking yourself “do I really understand this material?”. Alternatively, in other cases, you might want to engage in slower and deeper reflection, by writing down all the key topics that you’ve learned about, and going over this list to identify areas that you don’t understand well.

Similarly, in some cases, you might want to quickly ask yourself “is this learning technique working well for me?”. Alternatively, in other cases, you might decide to write down a list of all the learning techniques that you’re using, and then rank them based on how effective they are for you. Furthermore, if you do this, you can also ask yourself what all the techniques that work well for you have in common.

When doing all this, you can use various questions to guide your reflection, as shown in the examples above, and the following are some specific questions that you might benefit from using:

Which parts of the material do I understand well? How do I know that I understand this material well?
Which parts of the material do I struggle with? What specifically am I struggling with, and why?
Which learning techniques do I feel are helpful? Why do I feel that they are helpful?
Which learning techniques do I feel are unhelpful? Why do I feel that they are unhelpful?
Are there any changes that I can make to my learning process to make it better for me?
Should I ask someone else for help, either with my reflection or with my learning? If so, then what should I ask about, and who is a good person to ask this?

Keep in mind that it’s often more difficult to engage in reflective learning than it is to simply move forward without reflection, especially in the short term. Accordingly, people often avoid reflection, particularly when they’re under time pressure. However, in the long term, reflective learning can be better, both when it comes directly to your learning outcomes, as well as when it comes to related benefits, such as your general ability to learn and your motivation to do so.

Overall, you can reflect on various aspects of your learning, including your understanding of the material, your understanding of how to implement what you’ve learned, your learning process, and your abilities, preferences, thoughts, and goals. You can encourage and guide reflective learning by asking relevant questions, such as “which parts of the material do I struggle with?”, “which learning techniques work well for me?”, and “is there anything I can do to make my learning process more effective?”.

Note : when engaging in reflective learning, you can also benefit from focusing on knowledge-building , an approach to learning and teaching that involves relatively deep engagement with the study material.

Reflective learning as a shared activity

Reflective learning can be something that you do by yourself or together with others. When done as a shared activity, reflective learning can take many forms. For example, it can involve a group of students openly discussing what challenges they faced while studying for a test, or a one-on-one meeting between a student and a tutor, where the tutor asks the student guiding questions about the student’s learning process.

There are advantages and disadvantages to individual reflection and shared reflection, as well as to the various forms of shared reflection. For example, while shared reflection as part of a group exposes people to more perspectives, which can help them identify more issues with their learning than they would be able to identify in a pair or by themselves, this approach can also make the reflection process much more stressful for people who are shy and struggle to work in groups.

Accordingly, when deciding whether and how to make reflective learning a shared activity, it’s important to consider the situation, and take any potential advantages and disadvantages into account.

Note : when it comes to shared reflective learning, an important concept to be aware of is the protégé effect , which is a psychological phenomenon where teaching, pretending to teach, or preparing to teach information to others helps a person learn that information. This is because the protégé effect means that shared reflective learning can help not only the person who is reflecting, but also those who help them do it.

How to encourage reflective learning in others

To encourage reflective learning in others, you can:

Explain what reflective learning is.
Explain why reflective learning can be beneficial.
Explain how people can generally engage in reflective learning, potentially using relevant examples.
Explain how they specifically can engage in reflective learning, potentially using relevant examples.
Create an environment that is conducive to reflective learning, for example by giving people enough time to engage in reflection.
Guide people’s reflection directly, for example by asking them questions that prompt them to think about their learning.

There are many ways in which you can do this. For example, you can give students a worksheet a day after an important exam, which has questions that guide them through the reflective-learning process. Similarly, you can dedicate 10 minutes at the end of class to having discussions in pairs, where students are encouraged to help each other reflect on their studies.

When encouraging reflective learning in others, you should remember that the end goal is to help them develop their skills and improve their learning outcomes. As such, you want to avoid the potential pitfalls of promoting reflective learning in an inappropriate manner. This can happen, for example, if you make the reflection feel like a pointless exercise, if you push learners to share information that they don’t feel comfortable giving, or if you force learners to use reflection techniques that don’t work well for them.

For example, this means that if you generally use reflective writing as a technique for promoting reflection, but someone feels much more comfortable engaging in reflection through sketching and drawing, then you should consider letting them do so, as long as it’s appropriate given the circumstances.

Reflective learning and reflective practice

Reflective practice involves actively analyzing your experiences and actions, in order to help yourself improve and develop.

The terms reflective learning and reflective practice refer to similar concepts, and because their definitions vary and even overlap in some cases , they are sometimes used interchangeably.

Nevertheless, one possible way to differentiate between them is to say that people engage in reflective learning with regard to events where learning is the main goal, and in reflective practice with regard to events where learning is not the main goal. For example, a nursing student might engage in reflective learning when learning how to perform a certain procedure, whereas an experienced nurse might engage in reflective practice while performing the same procedure as part of their everyday routine.

Alternatively, it’s possible to view reflective learning as a notable type of reflective practice, which revolves around improving one’s learning in particular.

Overall, there is no clear distinction between reflective practice and reflective learning, and these terms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, potential distinctions between these terms are generally not important from a practical perspective, since they are unlikely to influence how the underlying concepts are implemented in practice.

Summary and conclusions

Reflective learning has various potential benefits, including helping learners assess their situation and improve their learning process, helping learners understand themselves and develop their metacognitive skills, and increasing learners’ feelings of autonomy and control, as well as their motivation.
You can reflect on various aspects of your learning, including your understanding of the material, your understanding of how to implement what you’ve learned, your learning process, and your abilities, preferences, thoughts, and goals.
You can encourage and guide reflective learning by asking relevant questions, such as “which parts of the material do I struggle with?”, “which learning techniques work well for me?”, and “is there anything I can do to make my learning process more effective?”.

Teaching Young Students How to Reflect on Their Learning

Early elementary students can identify and articulate their goals through structured reflection on what matters most to them.

Reflection helps us remember lessons learned and gives us a sense of accomplishment. When we consider our challenges and experiences deeply, we can identify gratifying experiences and things that we can aspire to do differently going forward.

When you help kids set manageable goals, they can take ownership of their learning and understand that they can accomplish hard things if they focus. As a foundation for lifelong learning, reflection builds confidence and fosters pride in new skills (including metacognition skills that help learners notice their own growth).

You can teach young children this skill anytime during the school year, weaving it into instruction in any number of simple ways. I like to build reflection into the beginning of the school year so students can set their own goals for the year ahead, and near the end of the school year .

Setting Goals

I always have kids reflect on their hopes and dreams for the school year ahead to set them up for success. I guide them through the activity over the first couple of weeks of school, starting with discussions centered around questions like “Why do we come to school?” and “What would you like to accomplish here?”

I record my students’ answers on a single piece of chart paper and help them articulate the answers as manageable goals. (If any of their goals seem unrealistic, I help them form ones that are more manageable. If a child says, “I want to visit a zoo,” I may ask them if I can rephrase their goal by saying, “Sounds like you want to learn about animals this year. Can I write that down?”)

This activity continues over several days: The list grows as new goals emerge, classroom routines develop, and students learn what a school day is like. Students also discover that setting learning goals takes time and requires thoughtfulness to discover what matters most to them.

After a week, each child chooses one goal from our class list that is most important to them. They write it down on a piece of paper and illustrate it with markers and watercolor paints. Then each child shares their goal with the class, and we display them for everyone to see. The students learn that their goals are something they can work toward and be proud of, and that goals represent who they are, who they want to become, and what is important to them.

Morning Meeting

I also teach children about reflection in our daily morning meeting. Our class mascot is a stuffed turtle named Twiggles, who shows up every day at our morning meeting and asks the kids, “How are you feeling?” This SEL activity helps the kids learn how to identify and express their emotions. We name our feelings and describe what may be causing them; sharing them in a group builds their confidence. We also talk about expected and unexpected feelings (excitement to see a friend or sudden sadness while remembering a loved one who has passed away), as well as comfortable and uncomfortable feelings (happiness when you do something really well or nervousness when presenting your work to the class). Finally, we notice how feelings come and go and how sometimes people can have many emotions at once.

I like to list these feelings on an ABC chart (A: Agreeable, Anxious, Annoyed; B: Brave, Bored, Bashful; etc.) so that we can continue to reflect on and learn from the many feelings that infuse our days. Being able to notice, name, and reflect on their emotions gives children the emotional vocabulary they need to feel heard, valued, and accepted, which helps them in accomplishing their goals.

Written Reflection

Another great way to reflect with young children is through their written work. Whether we are doing a science observation out in nature or discussing a strategy for solving a math equation, the kids keep a journal where they can reflect on what they learned. They answer these three prompts: I see _____, I think _____, I wonder _____.

That way, children learn how to pay close attention to what they see, draw conclusions from their observations, and think about what questions that doing so brings up for them. This simple journal activity, along with other question-generating strategies, such as the Question Formulation Technique , helps students reflect on their learning and take ownership of it.

As the children share their thoughts with classmates, they learn that there are many ways to solve problems, that their observations can help others learn, and that there is value in listening to others’ ideas. This practice of reflecting on their work with others helps build confidence in their knowledge, engages them in their assignments, and inspires curiosity.

Memory Rocks

This year I introduced a new reflection activity to my students: creating memory rocks. At the end of the year, we made a list of lessons learned from the long previous months, when things were constantly changing. I asked my students simple questions about what lessons or memories they wanted to hold on to as we got ready to say goodbye for the summer:

What did we learn from this year?
How are you feeling?
What was the most important thing you want to remember?

They amazed me with their simple, powerful reflections: Don’t give up... Be kind... Try your best... Friendship counts... Be brave... Things can change... Be yourself... Help others... You can do it... Love.

Then we read If You Find a Rock , a story about all the mysterious natural places you can find different kinds of rocks, including those you hold on to that can represent certain memories. Then we went outside in the woods to look together for smooth rocks and brought a big pile back to our classroom.

Each child wrote the words they wanted to put on their memory rock to honor our year together. They drew on paper what they wanted their rock to look like, then painted it with vibrant colors and a white square in the middle for their words to go. When they were done, they brought their rocks to the front entrance of our school for all to see.

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Reflective My Learning Experience

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Learning Stories: Observation, Reflection, and Narrative in Early Childhood Education

When I think of children, the image that comes to mind is that of competent human beings: resourceful, creative, and able to collaborate with peers and adults. Young children are today’s citizens of the world, with their own ideas, theories, inquiries, strong preferences, and stories. As citizens, they have needs, but also rights—one of which is to be seen as contributors to their own education. Their interests, questions, and thoughts should influence what they do and learn at school.

I am an early childhood educator. I am also an immigrant and an American citizen by naturalization. I began teaching and learning from young children in San Francisco, California, when I began volunteering in a multilingual early childhood program. Because I lacked the knowledge of child development and curriculum planning required to do this work most effectively, I enrolled in classes at City College and took as many child development classes as I could. I am currently a doctoral student in the Educational Leadership Program at San Francisco State University, where I have been a lecturer for the past five years. I teach undergraduate courses on children’s language development in multilingual early childhood education settings, classroom observation and children’s evaluation, and more recently, a graduate course on narrative inquiry in ECE and elementary school.

I am also a preschool teacher: I have taught preschool for 18 years—the past 10 at Las Americas Early Education School in San Francisco’s Mission District. As an early childhood educator committed to equity of voice, I believe that educational activities with preschool children should be based on daily observations of children at play both in the classroom and outdoors. These observations should include teachers’ reflections and, as much as possible, families’ opinions and perspectives on their children’s learning, curiosity, talents, agency, hopes, and dreams. As a preschool teacher in a multi-language setting, I am required to conduct classroom observations to assess children’s learning. This has led me to the following questions:

How can early childhood educators support and make visible children’s emergent cultural and linguistic identities?
How can teachers embed story and narrative to document children’s growth and strengthen families’ participation in their children’s education?

This article examines the use of an observational approach in the form of Learning Stories, a narrative-based formative assessment created by New Zealand early childhood education leaders. By encouraging teachers to recognize children as competent explorers and learners at any given moment, Learning Stories provide a way to document children’s strengths and improve instruction based on the interests, talents, and expertise of children and their families (Carr & Lee 2012, 2019).

The Role of Documentation

A teacher observes children cooperating with a puzzle.

My concept of documentation has evolved over the years and will likely continue evolving as I gain new insights about its relevance in the early childhood classroom. My views have been influenced by the Reggio Emilio approach (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman 1998, 2012); the inquiry work carried out at the former Prospect School (Himley & Carini 2000; Carini 2001) in North Bennington, Vermont; and New Zealand’s Learning Stories (Carr & Lee 2012, 2019). Each of these approaches emphasizes teachers observing, writing, reflecting, and documenting classroom life as a way to better understand and teach children.

The Reggio Emilia early childhood schools of Northern Italy (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman 1998, 2012; Turner & Wilson 2010) use the term “documentation” to refer to the process of observing and recording children’s learning experiences through different media (Helm & Katz 2001). Their curricular framework is an approach “based on adults listening rather than speaking, where doubts and amazement are welcome factors along with scientific inquiry and the deductive method of the detective” (Rinaldi 1998, 115). Systematic and meaningful observations of children’s learning are routine classroom practices that guide the curriculum.

Likewise, in the Prospect School’s approach to schooling, general theories of education take second place to teacher reflection. Teachers reflect on their teaching practices through a collaborative analysis known as “descriptive review,” or the deep analysis of one particular child, one piece of work, one classroom, or one issue that stimulates new kinds of thinking about children, curriculum, and larger educational challenges (Himley & Carini 2000; Carini 2001). While in operation, Prospect teachers documented children’s daily activities through richly detailed observations and descriptions that became narrative accounts over time. They focused on children’s interests and strengths to understand the intricacy of their thinking and to see children and their learning contexts in all of their complexities.

In New Zealand, educators use the Learning Stories approach to assess children’s progress. This narrative tool is a record of a child’s life in the classroom and school community based on teachers’ observations of the child at play and work. It tells a story written to the child that is meant to be shared with the family. Learning Stories serve as a meaningful pedagogical tool to assess children’s strengths and help educators reflect on their roles in the complex processes of teaching and learning (Carr & Lee 2012, 2019). As formative assessments, they offer the possibility of reimagining all children as competent, inquisitive learners and all educators as critical thinkers and creative writers, genuinely invested in their children’s work.

Documentation in Marginalized Communities

Learning Stories break away from the more traditional methods of teaching, learning, and assessment that often view children and families from a deficit perspective, highlighting what they cannot do. By contrast, Learning Stories offer an opportunity to reimagine children as curious, knowledgeable, playful learners and teachers as critical thinkers, creative writers, and advocates of play. Learning Stories are based on individual or family narratives, and they recognize the value of Indigenous knowledge. For native, Indigenous, and marginalized communities, the telling of stories or historical memoirs may be conceived as something deeply personal and even part of a “sacred whole” (Benham 2007). When we engage in writing and reading classroom stories—knowing how they are told, to whom, and why—we uncover who we are as communities and, perhaps, develop a deeper appreciation and understanding of other people’s stories.

My preschool is part of the San Francisco Unified School District’s Early Education Department. Our school reflects the ethnic, economic, cultural, and linguistic mosaic of the school’s immediate neighborhood, which consists primarily of first- and second-generation immigrant families from Mexico, Central America, and Asia. When children enter our program, only about 10 percent feel comfortable speaking English. The others prefer to speak their home languages, meaning Spanish, Cantonese, and Mandarin are the most common languages in our school.

Most of my students receive subsidized services, and their families primarily work in the hospitality, child care, or construction industries, or are in training for new employment. The school has three preschool-age classrooms: one Spanish-English dual language classroom with 24 children; one Cantonese-English dual language classroom with 24 children; and one classroom of children with special needs, which has 12 children. Each of our preschool classrooms is composed of one lead teacher and two assistant teachers, and each classroom has been assigned a district instructional coach.

Our preschool’s academic framework is based on the project approach, which embraces children’s interests and the immediate environment for engaging in in-depth studies of specific topics from multiple perspectives (Helm & Katz 2016). Investigations are undertaken by a whole class, a small group of children within a class, or by an individual child. Each project focuses on finding answers to questions about a topic posed by the children, the teachers, or the teachers and children together. Classroom investigations may last from a few days to several months and are carefully documented by teachers and children. Photographs, recorded conversations, short videos, children’s artwork and dictations, classroom-made booklets, and teachers’ reflections and interpretations are all part of what eventually becomes a child’s Learning Story and our teachers’ rich observation, reflection, and assessment tools.

For instance, during a class investigation on families, my 5-year-old student Juanito shared why his family did not live together in San Francisco. He described in graphic detail how his grandfather had been shot to death several years before while crossing a river in El Salvador. He also shared how his dad and mom had come to San Francisco, leaving behind their two older daughters, his sisters. Juanito’s sense of family was marked by a sense of longing for a foreign country he had never visited and two siblings he had only seen in photographs.

Juanito used drawings to express his feelings. In them, he depicted El Salvador as both beautiful and dangerous: a place that offered warmth (because his two young adult sisters lived there) but also a place with gangs who made people live in fear. “El Salvador is very pretty and has a big soccer field where one can play fútbol [football soccer],” he told us, his teachers. “My sister is a soccer player, like me. And I know there are gangs that go around killing people. My Daddy told me, and I’ve seen it on the TV.”

In my reflective role as Juanito’s preschool teacher, I began to understand his behavior much better as I watched and talked to him and assembled his Learning Story. As a result, I greatly improved my communication with him and my relationship with his parents. Juanito’s mom and dad have been very open about their family history and the story behind their decision to leave El Salvador and come to the United States. Their search for that envisioned future has brought a lot of stress to a family living in two countries—especially for little Juanito, who is developing his own identity as an American citizen with strong emotional ties to El Salvador.

During another class investigation—this one on our children’s cultural heritage—we read A Movie in my Pillow / Una Película en mi Almohada , by Salvadorean writer Jorge Argueta (2007). The children enjoyed this collection of poems in which the main character, young Jorgito, lives in the Mission District but has not forgotten his native El Salvador. Just like Jorgito, we discovered that many of the children in our classroom had “memories” from where their parents had emigrated. Argueta’s poems opened the door to children’s creativity and imagination, which teachers could document, reflect on, write about, and assess.

My student Zahid revealed his story-telling skills by sharing the story of his father’s attempt to cross the border between Mexico and the United States. (See “Waiting for Dad on this Side of the Border" and “Under the Same Sun,” below.) The resulting Learning Story provided a structure for documenting Zahid’s developmental progression over time and for collecting data on his language use, funds of knowledge, evolving creative talents, and curiosity for what takes place in his world—all of this in his attempt to make sense of events impacting his family and his community.

Developing a Learning Story

Children extend their curiosity as they play with manipulatives.

Educators can use Learning Stories to identify developmental milestones with links to specific assessment measures; however, the purpose is not to test a hypothesis or to evaluate. At the root of any Learning Story is a genuine interest in understanding children’s lived experiences and the meaning teachers, families, and children themselves make of those experiences to augment their learning. As Southcott (2015, 37) reminds us, “Teachers choose a significant classroom moment to enlarge in a Learning Story in order to explore children’s thinking more closely.”

Although no two Learning Stories will be alike, a few core principles underlie them all. The foundational components include the following (Carter 2010, 2017; Carr & Lee 2012, 2019):

an observation with accompanying photographs or short videos
an analysis of the observation
a plan to extend a child’s learning
the family’s perspective on their child’s learning experience
links to specific evaluation tools

Suggested Format of a Learning Story

The writing of Learning Stories encourages teachers to recognize children as competent explorers and learners in familiar settings at any given moment during the school day. The following format is a helpful guide for observing, documenting, and understanding children’s learning processes. It also may help teachers organize fleeting ideas into a coherent narrative to make sense of classroom observations or specific children’s experiences.

Title: Any great story begins with a good title that captures the essence of the tale being told. Margie Carter (2010) suggests that the act of giving a title to a story be saved for the end, after the teacher has written, reflected on, and analyzed the significance of what has been observed, photographed and/or video recorded.
Observation: The teacher begins the story with their own interest in what the child has taken the initiative to do, describing what the child does and says. When teachers talk and write the story in the first person, they give a “voice” to the storyteller or narrator within. In their multiple roles as observers, documenters, and writers, teachers bring a personal perspective that is essential to the story. They write directly to the child, describing the scene in detail and narrating what they noticed, observed, or heard. Accompanying photographs, screenshots, or still frames of a video clip of the child in action serve as evidence of the child’s resourcefulness, skills, dispositions, and talents.
What Does It Mean? (or What Learning Do I See Happening?): These are questions teachers can use to reflect, interpret, and write about the significance of what they observed. This meaning-making is best done in dialogue with other teachers. Multiple perspectives can certainly be included here; indeed, objectivity is more likely to be reached when the Learning Story includes a variety of voices or perspectives (Carr & Lee 2012, 2019). Ask your coteachers or colleagues to collaborate to offer their pedagogical, professional, and personal opinions to the interpretation of the events.
Opportunities and Possibilities (or How Can We Support You in Your Learning?): In this section, teachers describe what they can tentatively do in the immediate or distant future to scaffold and extend the child’s learning. How can they cocreate with children learning activities that stem from individual or collective interests? This section might also reveal teachers’ active processes in planning meaningful classroom activities while respecting children’s sense of agency.
Questions to the Family: This is an invitation for a child’s family to offer their opinions on how they perceive their child as a competent learner. It is not uncommon for a child’s family to respond with messages addressed to the teacher. However, when teachers kindly request parents to reply directly to their child, they write beautiful messages to their children. Sometimes, the family might suggest ideas and activities to support their child’s learning both at home and school. They might even provide materials to enhance and extend the learning experience for all the children in the class.
Observed Milestones or Learning Dispositions: Here, teachers can link the content of a child’s Learning Story to specific evaluative measures required by a program, school district, or state. They also can focus on the learning dispositions reflected in the story: a child’s curiosity, persistence, creativity, and empathy. The learning dispositions highlighted in a Learning Story reflect the emerging values of children and the values and beliefs of teachers, families, schools, and even the larger community.

Making Time for Documentation

A Learning Story recognizes a child’s everyday efforts as milestones in their continuous growth. It is a beautiful personal and pedagogical gift to a child and family based on what teachers observe, analyze, and interpret. Yes, documenting and making children’s learning visible through detailed observations, photographs, and reflections require time, intention, and incentives. But as Carini reminds us, children are more than a sum of unchanging traits, and it takes time and patience to paint a fuller picture of how they are evolving (Himley & Carini 2000).

When beginning the Learning Story process, remember that there is a storyteller in everyone. Creating a short Learning Story as a record of a child’s learning, playfulness, resourcefulness, experimentation, and drive can turn documentation into something enjoyable. Write just a few lines of what was observed, identify its possible meaning, then plan for a tentative activity to support the child’s interest. Add a photograph or series of photographs as illustrations, then share the Learning Story with a coteacher or other colleague to get feedback on composition, language, and narrative. Think of the Learning Story as another way of making a child and family feel special, and remember that families are always appreciative when teachers take note of their children’s accomplishments. Invite the family to add a few lines to the story by sharing what they have noticed their child doing at home related to the topic.

Waiting for Dad on this Side of the Border

What happened? What’s the story? Zahid, I admire your initiative to tell us the tale of the travels your dad has undertaken to reunite with you and your family in California. On a map you showed us Mexico City where you say your dad started his journey to the North. You spoke about the border ( la frontera ), and you asked us to help you find Nebraska and Texas on our map, because that’s where you say your dad was detained. We asked you, “What is the border?” and you answered: “It is a place where they arrest you because you are an immigrant. My dad was detained because he wanted to go to California to be with me.”

Zahid carefully crafts his picture of the border that separates him from his dad.

What is the significance of this story? Zahid, through this story where you narrate the failed attempt of your dad to get reunited with you and your family, you reveal an understanding that goes well beyond your 5.4 years. In the beginning you referred to the map as a planet, but perhaps that’s how you understand your world: a planet with lines that divide cities, states, and countries. A particular area that called your attention was the line between Mexico and the United States, which you retraced in blue ink to highlight the place where you say your dad crossed the border. It is indeed admirable to see you standing self-assured in front of the class ready to explain to your classmates your feelings and ideas so eloquently.

What activities could we plan to support you in exploring this topic that you are so interested in? Zahid, we could invite you to share with your classmates the tale of your dad’s travels and invite your friends to share the stories of their families too. We could take dictations of what it means for you to be waiting for Dad on this side of the border. We could support you to put into practice your interest in writing so that you could write a letter or message to your dad. Perhaps you would be interested in making a painting on a canvas representing your ideas and feelings with paint strokes and acrylic colors.

Zahid uses paint to represent the word frontera.

What’s the family’s perspective? Zahid is not very fond of writing, but he talks a lot and also understands quite a lot. He doesn’t like drawing but maybe with your support here at school he could find enjoyment in drawing or painting. —Mom

Under the Same Sun

What happened? What’s the story? Zahid, of the several options we proposed to you to continue exploring the topic of the journey of your dad from Mexico to the United States, you chose a canvas, skinny paint brushes, and acrylic colors to represent the word frontera . Until now, you had hardly showed any interest in using painting tools, the process of writing, or making graphic representations of your ideas. Your preferred mode of expression was to communicate orally, and you have been doing it quite well! The fact you chose paintbrushes and acrylic paints reveals that every child should have the right to be an active participant when it comes to making decisions about their individual learning.

What is the significance of this story? Zahid, I’m very pleased to see your determination to make a graphic representation of the word frontera. After so many sessions singing the initial sounds corresponding to each letter of the alphabet in Spanish, I thought you would be inclined to sound out the word frontera phoneme by phoneme and spell it out to write it on paper, but that was not the case. Instead, you decided to undertake something more complex, and you chose a paint brush and acrylic colors to represent (write) la frontera the way you perceive it based on the experiences you have lived with your family and, especially, with your dad.

What possibilities emerge? Zahid, you could perhaps share with your classmates and your family your creative process. Throughout the entire process of sketching and painting you demonstrated remarkable patience since you had to wait at least 24 hours for the first layer of paint to dry before applying the next one. You chose the color brown to paint the wall that divides Mexico and the United States because that’s what you saw in the photos that popped out in the computer screen when we looked for images of the word “ frontera .” You insisted on painting a yellow sun on this side of the wall because according to you, that’s what your dad would see on his arrival to California, along with colorful, very tall buildings with multiple windows. I hope one day you and your dad can play together under the same sun.

What’s the family’s perspective? I think it is good for my son to have support from his teachers at school and that he can express what he feels or thinks. Although sometimes I wonder if it’s better to avoid the topic altogether. These months have been very difficult for everyone in the family but especially for him because he is the eldest. He says that he misses his dad even though he hasn’t seen him in a long time. And he says that he wants to go to Mexico when he’s older to be with Dad. —Mom

The Learning Stories framework honors multiple perspectives to create a more complete image of each learner. These include the voice of the teacher as narrator and documenter; the voice, actions, and behaviors of children as active participants in the learning process; and the voices of families who offer—either orally or in writing—their perspectives as the most important teachers in their children’s lives.

Teachers in different types of early childhood education settings can use this framework to observe, document, preserve, and share precious moments of learning and transformation in young children’s school journeys with specific examples of their questions, puzzles, discoveries, and growth (Knauf 2020; Nyland & Alfayez 2021). Through these child-centered stories, teachers engage minds, touch hearts, and enhance their pedagogical and intellectual work. They humanize the early childhood profession, paving the way toward innovative modes of observing, analyzing, and understanding the complexities of children’s learning and behaviors. Children’s active participation in classroom life and curriculum planning supports a sense of inclusiveness, agency, and belonging when they see themselves as the protagonists of their own stories in a school environment that celebrates their voices, experiences, and talents.

This article includes content from Escamilla’s chapter in the Advancing Equity & Embracing Diversity in Early Childhood Education book as well as content from an original manuscript by the author accepted for Young Children.

This article supports recommendations from NAEYC's advancing equity position statement Recommendations for Early Childhood Educators Create a Caring, Equitable Community of Engaged Learners Item 1: Uphold the unique value and dignity of each child and family. Observe, Document, and Assess Children’s Learning and Development Item 2: Use authentic assessments that seek to identify children’s strengths and provide a well-rounded picture of development.

Benham, M.K. 2007. “Mo’ōlelo: On Culturally Relevant Story Making from an Indigenous Perspective.” In Handbook of Narrative Inquiry: Mapping a Methodology , edited by D.J. Clandinin, 512–533. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Carini, P.F. 2001. Starting Strong: A Different Look at Children, Schools, and Standards. New York: Teachers College Press.

Carr, M., & W. Lee. 2012. Learning Stories: Constructing Learner Identities in Early Education . London: SAGE Publications.

Carr, M., & W. Lee. 2019. Learning Stories in Practice . London: SAGE Publications.

Carter, M. 2010. “Using Learning Stories to Strengthen Teachers’ Relationships with Children.” Exchange 32 (6): 40–44.

Carter, M. 2017. “Growing Ourselves as Leaders: A Conversation with Annie White.” Exchange 39 (6): 46–51.

Edwards, C., L. Gandini, & G. Forman, eds. 1998. The Hundred Languages of Children: The Reggio Emilia Approach: Advanced Reflections , 2 nd ed. Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

Edwards, C., L. Gandini, & G. Forman, eds. 2012. The Hundred Languages of Children: The Reggio Emilia Experience in Transformation. 3 rd ed. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.

Escamilla, I.M., & D. Meier. 2018. “The Promise of Teacher Inquiry and Reflection: Early Childhood Teachers as Change Agents.” Studying Teacher Education 14 (1): 3-21.

Helm, J.H., & L.G. Katz. 2016. Young Investigators: The Project Approach in the Early Years . New York: Teachers College Press.

Himley, M., & P.F. Carini. 2000. From Another Angle: Children’s Strengths and School Standards: The Prospect Center’s Descriptive Review of the Child . New York: Teachers College Press.

Knauf, H. 2020. “Learning Stories, Pedagogical Work, and Early Childhood Education: A Perspective from German Preschools.” Education Inquiry 11 (2): 94-109.

Malaguzzi, L. 1998. “History, Ideas and Basic Philosophy: An Interview with Lella Gandini.” In The Hundred Languages of Children: The Reggio Emilia Approach Advanced Reflections , 2 nd ed., edited by C. Edwards, G.E. Forman, & L. Gandini, 49–97. Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

NAEYC. 2019. “Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education.” Position statement. Washington, DC: NAEYC. www.naeyc.org/resources/position-statements/equity .

Nyland, B., & S. Alfayez. 2012. “Learning Stories–Crossing Borders: Introducing Qualitative Early Childhood Observation Techniques to Early Childhood Practitioners in Saudi Arabia.” International Journal of Early Years Education 20 (4): 392–404.

Rinaldi, C. 1998. “Projected Curriculum Constructed Through Documentation—Progettazi-One: An Interview with Lella Gandini.” In The Hundred Languages of Children: The Reggio Emilia Approach: Advanced Reflections , 2 nd ed., edited by C.P. Edwards, L. Gandini, & G. Forman, 113-126. Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

Southcott, L.H. 2015. “Learning Stories: Connecting Parents, Celebrating Success, and Valuing Children’s Theories.” Voices of Practitioners 10 (1): 34-50.

Turner, T. & D.G. Wilson. 2010. “Reflections on Documentation: A Discussion with Thought Leaders on Reggio Emilia.” Theory into Practice 49 (5): 5-13.

Isauro Escamilla, EdD, is assistant professor in the Elementary Education Department of the Graduate College of Education at San Francisco State University, where he teaches Language Arts in K–5 Settings and Spanish Heritage Language and Pedagogy for Bilingual Teachers, among other courses.

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Perspect Med Educ
v.5(5); 2016 Oct

Reflection’s role in learning: increasing engagement and deepening participation

Karen v. mann.

Division of Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia Canada

It’s a pleasure to write a commentary that has as its basis a study which examines the impact of reflection on learning. As one considers the evolution of our understanding of reflection and its place in health professions education, several observations emerge. Educators have understood reflection as a key element of learning for decades, dating at least back to John Dewey [ 1 ]. However, its place in medical education has emerged more recently. Donald Schön’s [ 2 , 3 ] description of how learning from experience occurred in practice introduced a new epistemology of learning to medical education.

For some time, attempts at introducing reflection into medical and health professions education curricula ran separately from and parallel to what were regarded as the central curricular elements [ 4 ] and challenges existed for their integration [ 5 ]. Pedersen [ 6 ], in a review of empathy teaching, noted the dichotomy of science and humanities in the world of physicians. He suggests that the effect of learning biomedical skills and knowledge, combined with an unquestioned reliance on ‘objectivity’ of biomedical knowledge, may not allow for or recognize the importance of deriving meaning and interpretation, such as through reflection. Hence it may remain on the periphery.

How our ideas have changed! Reflection is now regarded as an essential capacity fundamental to self-regulation and learning. Accumulating evidence demonstrates many benefits: it is integral to self-assessment, enhances acceptance of feedback, allows for the integration of new and existing knowledge and experience, facilitates reconciliation of cognitive and affective elements of experience, supports the development of professional identity, and enhances diagnostic accuracy [ 7 ].

The challenge facing educators now is a different one: How can reflective practice be integrated into the core of medical education? How can its development be effectively scaffolded and structured?

Larsen et al. [ 8 ] describe a reflective learning approach in which learners in the clinical setting engaged in daily reflections. Their goal was to understand the impact frequent reflection-on-action might have on priming learners’ reflection-in-action: i. e. awareness of their thoughts and actions in the moment. In the authors’ view this could support the development of a habit of mind of situational awareness and monitoring. They also explored the effect of frequent reflection on the remembering of experience, drawing on principles and evidence from cognitive science about the effect and timing of recall on retention.

The findings of this pilot study both offer interesting insights and raise questions about how reflection may enhance learning. A practical consideration is the feasibility of frequent reflection as an educational activity. As the authors note, and others have shown, feedback on reflection is an essential component of the learning that results. Providing such feedback requires the commitment of faculty teachers; it also requires faculty development and support to enhance the likelihood that feedback will lead to improved ability to reflect, and beyond the current experiences.

The relationship between reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action is also noteworthy. Larsen et al.’s findings support that students may find themselves being more aware in the moment, as a means of preparing for and gathering data for their later reflection-on-action. Whether or how reflection-on-action stimulates reflection-in-action or situational awareness is as yet unclear. It seems that these are two separate types of reflection, and with different purposes. Reflection-in-action suggests that adjustments are made in the moment, whereas reflection-on action may lead to adjustments to future learning and actions. This seems an area for further exploration.

It is also useful to consider the affective component of reflection. While Schön’s [ 2 , 3 ] model was less explicit about this aspect, other models more clearly elicit the importance of reflecting on both thinking and feeling [ 4 ]. Larsen and colleagues [ 8 ] have focused on the reflection process rather than the specific content of the reflections; there is no explicit mention of emotions or feelings in the survey questions to which the students responded. If we as educators are silent about emotion could we unintentionally reinforce the idea that Wald [ 7 ] describes, of reflection on feelings as an ‘optional extra’? Recognizing how thinking and feeling may interact and affect each other can contribute both to enhanced self-awareness and to the development of professional identity. Learners may need structure and support to reflect in this way.

More broadly, approaches to understanding learning may be helpful in situating the role of reflection. Sfard [ 9 ] coined the metaphors of ‘acquisition’ and ‘participation’ to describe learning. The Acquisition metaphor describes individual learning and development of knowledge, skills and values that are then applied to and underlie practice. The Participation metaphor sees learning as occurring in active participation in the activities of the community one desires to enter, learning about the actual practice of the profession. Participation involves developing an understanding of one’s role in the community, socialization into the profession and development of professional identity as an increasingly responsible and contributing member of the community. Connecting and integrating these experiences and constructing one’s professional identity requires meaning-making, an activity that requires reflection.

Billet’s concept of ‘readiness to learn’ may also be helpful. Billett [ 10 , 11 ] writes about learning from work, or practice-based learning. He emphasizes the importance of readiness to learn, by which he means learners’ readiness to engage with the experiences they encounter. Developing competence occurs in conceptual, procedural and dispositional areas: that is, learners develop in what they know, can do, and value. Key to learning effectively from work is the learner’s active engagement. Billett positions learners as making meaning and constructing connections among the things they are learning; they do so based on their previous experience. Therefore, two learners may have a similar experience, but they will each learn something different from it. In the context of Billett’s explanation, reflection as described by Larsen et al, [ 8 ]. can play an important role in several aspects of learning from practice: it promotes active engagement and making meaning of experience; it can increase intentionality, and it also focuses learners on using their reflections as a means to guide their future learning, and therefore to be more goal-directed.

Larsen and colleagues [ 8 ] have provided valuable insights into learners’ experience with daily reflections. Their findings show promising potential effects on learning of frequent reflection on experience. As educators and researchers, how can we build on their findings using the understandings contributed by both Sfard [ 9 ] and Billet [ 10 , 11 ]? Can we provide experiences with which students can engage and in which they can participate? Importantly, in so doing, can we view reflection as a means of engagement which supports learners’ readiness – their development of competence in what they know, can do and value, and as a vehicle for deepening participation?

is professor emeritus in the Division of Medical Education at Dalhousie University and honorary professor of Medical Education at University of Manchester, UK. She is involved in teaching, research and development and writing across the medical education continuum. Current research interests include assessment and feedback, reflection, and distributed medical education.

Overall Reflection on Learning Journey Essay

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Educating young children is a very responsible task. During centuries, philosophers, teachers, and other scientists suggested many teaching techniques and theories that were aimed at improving the process of teaching, learning, and assessment. Indeed, modern education is based on several major principles that presuppose encouraging communication between adults and children, encourage learning activities, promote self-belief, and respect for other people. These principles were described and interpreted in various books, articles, etc. In this essay, I am going to highlight some key things, such as theories, principles, and approaches that re-shape or change the way I think about teaching, learning, and assessment.

I have never considered teaching as something easy, however, it is much “deeper” activity that, according to Eggen and Kauchak (2010) can be described with such adjectives as “demanding”, “challenging”, and “rewarding”. Being a teacher is not a profession, but a lifestyle. What was new for me is that a teacher should also be a psychologist. It is the main characteristic of his/her professionalism. As Eggen and Kauchak (2001) mention in their book, a commitment to learning, the ability to make decisions, reflective practices are the foundations of a professional teacher. Consequently, the knowledge of the material is not the only “knowledge” the teacher should possess. One should study educational psychology to develop a professional knowledge base that helps make decisions to maximize students’ learning. (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010).

What is also important for a teacher is no understand that the world and society develops, the students are not the same there were years ago, thus, a teacher is supposed to use innovative teaching methods that increase students’ alertness and motivation, as well as improve teacher’s professional development. One such method employs the use of the Internet and various digital technologies: “Internet navigation can use the technology to access professional development opportunities.” (Pandey and Bhargava, 2003) This promoted professional development and makes students more interested in learning, thus, it improves their performance. I have also realized that it is extremely important for teachers to understand individual student’s learning capabilities and psychological characteristics of every individual, as well as the whole group to be able to control their behavior. One should be aware of the ethics of the group membership and the commitment to the attitudes, values, and behavior of that group (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010). I also understood that there are many forms of disciplining young children, the most important for a teacher is to realize that these forms should be suitable in one time and place (Porter, 2002).

Two methods re-shaped my view on teaching: constructive and instructive teaching methods. The constructivist theory acknowledges that every learner needs to create an individual understanding of a concept through first-hand experience or reflection (student-based). This is an effective method since the students can visualize and easily understand the taught concepts. This is the opposite of the instructive teaching method where we are supposed to hammers information through explicit teaching, there is a strict sequence of skill presentation, and this method has its shortfalls since weak students might not be able to keep up with the pace. (Zevenbergen, 1995). One thing that we must all observe is professionalism and positive attitudes since they are keys to successful teaching. I appreciate the need to increase the students’ skills in education and life, and to achieve this we should empower students so that they can identify problems and solve them, still it brings them to issues related to real-life matters, and how to go about them. Thus, a teacher should promote student’s personal, social, and moral development in real-life situations.

According to Eggen and Kauchak (2010), age-related changes in personality, ability to interact, and pro-social characteristics should be taken into consideration when educating children. My vision of the educational process was also very changed by the theories of Piaget and Vigotsky. I considered that it is the teacher’s responsibility to present the knowledge, however, according to Piaget, learning is an active process and learners construct their knowledge (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010). Thus, the teacher is only the helper who directs and gives advice. Such a theory of active learning influenced greatly modern education and improved it. Vigotsky is another great pedagogue that changed my vision of the teaching process. His sociocultural theory of development emphasized the role of language in the child’s development, he promoted a great role of culture and social interaction (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010). Thus, I support the idea that people, as social beings should interact with other people and share their culture during socio-based activities.

Another important issue is the way of assessing students. We do this in various ways; one can take the formative approach which tests continuity, while there is the other method we use is the formative one which assesses the students at the end of their program. The formative approach is an effective method of testing day to day progress and it is effective since we can make rectifications instantly to avert the accumulation of learning problems. We are supposed to assess students in line with the set curriculum and objectives. This will take different forms but the primary objective is to use findings to improve our teaching and the student’s learning. (Bhagiar, 2007).

Throughout my learning, I discovered several important things that can promote the enhancement of teachers’ professional development and productivity. These issues have changed my attitude to teaching learning and assessment. What I understood is that teachers should prepare students to real life, promote their social, individual and moral development. By employing teaching tactics that use real life is, sues, teachers should let students explore the better world, come up with new ideas as well as help them solve real life problems. I appreciated what (Eggen & Kauchak 2010) said about real-life teaching whereby we use teaching aids which boosts the students’ ability to understand reality.

Bhagiar, M. (2006).Classroom Assessment Cycle within the Alternate Assessment Paradigm. Journal of Maltese Education research . Web.

Eggen, P & Kauchak, D. (2004) Education psychology Windows on classrooms. Web.

Pandey, V. C. & Bhargava, G. (2003). Digital Technologies and Teaching Strategies. Gyan Books.

Porter, L. (2002). Educating Young Children with Special Needs. SAGE.

Zevenbergen, R. (1995). Constructivist approaches in mathematics education. Web.

Educational Research for Better Learning Practices
Health Administration Instructor's Teaching Philosophy
Formative Assessment: Gauging the Outcome of Educational Activities
Education Plan: Formative Assessment
Keeping Learning on Track: Formative Assessment and the Regulation of Learning
Teacher Development and School Responsibilities
Educator's Principles in Foreign Language Teaching
Montessori Teacher's Certification Experiences
Founding Teacher's Experience in Montessori School
Teacher Experience in the Montessori School
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

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Learning By Thinking: How Reflection Improves Performance

Learning from direct experience can be more effective if coupled with reflection-that is, the intentional attempt to synthesize, abstract, and articulate the key lessons taught by experience.
Reflecting on what has been learned makes experience more productive.
Reflection builds one's confidence in the ability to achieve a goal (i.e., self-efficacy), which in turn translates into higher rates of learning.

Author Abstract

Research on learning has primarily focused on the role of doing (experience) in fostering progress over time. In this paper, we propose that one of the critical components of learning is reflection, or the intentional attempt to synthesize, abstract, and articulate the key lessons taught by experience. Drawing on dual-process theory, we focus on the reflective dimension of the learning process and propose that learning can be augmented by deliberately focusing on thinking about what one has been doing. We test the resulting dual-process learning model experimentally, using a mixed-method design that combines two laboratory experiments with a field experiment conducted in a large business process outsourcing company in India. We find a performance differential when comparing learning-by-doing alone to learning-by-doing coupled with reflection. Further, we hypothesize and find that the effect of reflection on learning is mediated by greater perceived self-efficacy. Together, our results shed light on the role of reflection as a powerful mechanism behind learning.

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Instructional Guide
Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

Reflective journals are personal records of students’ learning experiences. Students typically are asked by their instructors to record learning-related incidents, sometimes during the learning process but more often just after they occur. Entries in journals and learning logs can be prompted by questions about course content, assignments, exams, students’ own ideas or students’ thought processes about what happened in a particular class period. Journals and learning logs are then submitted to the instructor for feedback. Both paper-based and online journals or logs can be turned in before or after each class period or at any other designated time.

A student’s writing style for journals and logs can be informal and sometimes inappropriate. However, to help students learn more about a particular subject or content, you can require students to write more formal entries using correct terminology, facts, and connections to course content. Consider providing guidelines and/or rules to help students write meaningful and authentic journals or logs.

Journals have long been used in exploratory writing activities but also can benefit the student beyond learning how to write. As with any instructional or learning activity, selecting to use reflective journals or learning logs as part of a course should fit your teaching style and also connect with the course learning goals and objectives (Bean, 1996). Because it takes time for students to write in their reflective journals or learning logs, so too, it will take time for you to read and respond.

Journals have long been used in exploratory writing activities but also can benefit the student beyond learning how to write.

The literature is not consistent in defining the differences between reflective journals and learning logs. One may be considered less personal than the other; one might incorporate more instructor prompts and questions while the other might be more student-driven. “Journals often focus subjectively on personal experiences, reactions, and reflections while learning logs are more documentary records of students’ work process (what they are doing), their accomplishments, ideas, or questions” (Equipped for the Future, 2004). However, there is evidence that the art of reflection can help boost students’ critical thinking skills, encourage students to think about their own thinking (meta-cognition), and help students prepare for assignments and examinations (Homik, M. & Melis, E., 2007; Johnson, S., n.d.; RMIT, 2006).

…reflection can help boost students’ critical thinking skills, encourage students to think about their own thinking (meta-cognition), and help students prepare for assignments and examinations…

Types of Reflections

Journals and learning logs can be used to reflect on a range of issues and situations from numerous viewpoints and perspectives (RMIT, 2006). RMIT (2006) lists six types of reflections. The following descriptions depict a reflection on university student groups and drinking. Possible student comments are in italics.

Observations

At this stage a student would write about what they actually saw or their viewpoint on a particular event. For example , At the pre-game parties outside the stadium I saw student groups guzzling buckets of beer.

Upon reflection, the student could ask the question, Why do the all of the student groups drink together at football games but don’t seem to get along when they don’t drink?

Speculations

After thinking about the situation, the student could reflect, Maybe it’s possible that that student groups drink because it’s easier to socialize that way. Or, maybe they think that they have to drink because everyone else does!

Self-awareness

At this point a student may place himself or herself in the situation by considering the ramifications. I really don’t think I need to drink to be able to socialize with my friends and think we would get into trouble if we decided to drink as much as the groups do.

Integration of theory and ideas

By reflecting on theories or ideas about cultural norms the student has connected the experience with what he or she has learned. The student might write, Social norm theory explains that particular group members think other group members drink more than their group does.

This is where the student may self-reflect on or “critique” the situation by writing, I can now reflect on my own drinking experiences to see if I really drink because my friends do.

By reflecting on theories or ideas about cultural norms the student has connected the experience with what he or she has learned.

Reflecting is a cyclical process, where recording ones thoughts (reflecting) “leads to improvement and/or insight” (RMIT, 2006). Improvement could mean progress, development, growth, maturity, enhancement, or any number of words which could imply change. In education, we want students to change for the better, to grow while learning and to mature into knowledgeable adults. Recording what has happened, reflecting on processes and analyzing to improve deeper learning all can lead to new dimensions of students’ inner selves.

There are a number of stages through which students progress when writing reflective journals or learning logs. Each source outlines the stage or process somewhat differently yet with a similar approach. The essence of these models is presented below as the fundamental method of reflective journal and learning log entries. Note that each of the items below could be modified to fit a personal situation (for the reflective journal) or a learning environment/situation (for the learning log).

Method of Creating Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

It is suggested that students capture all formal and informal events which will prove useful when the time comes to return to the reflective journal or learning log for review. Students should focus on the areas which pose the most problems or difficulty in addition to those which are less problematic. Key to reflective journals and learning logs is to see progression over a period of time and to “gain a sense of achievement” (Dalhousie University, n.d.).

Key to reflective journals and learning logs is to see progression over a period of time and to “gain a sense of achievement.”

Write, record

Describe the situation (the course, the context)
Who was involved with the situation?
What did they have to do with the situation?

Reflect, think about

What are your reactions?
What are your feelings?
What are the good and the bad aspects of the situation?
What you have learned?

Analyze, explain, gain insight

What was really going on?
What sense can you make of the situation?
Can you integrate theory into the experience/situation?
Can you demonstrate an improved awareness and self-development because of the situation?

Conclusions

What can be concluded in a general and specific sense from this situation/experience and the analyses you have undertaken?

Personal action plan

What are you going to do differently in this type of situation next time?
What steps are you going to take on the basis of what you have learned?”

(Sources include: Homik, M. & Melis, E., 2007; Johnson, S., n.d.; RMIT, 2006)

Reflective journals and learning logs can be useful as a teaching and learning tool. Either format can be adopted in any discipline where you can determine what students are learning and in what areas they need assistance. Be open to read entries by students who might request feedback more often than scheduled.

Bean, J. C. (1996). Engaging ideas: The professor’s guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, and active learning in the classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Equipped for the Future (2004). Teaching/Learning Toolkit. Learning logs. http://eff.cls.utk.edu/toolkit/tools_learning_logs.htm

Johnson, S. (n.d.) Faculty strategies for promoting student learning. http://www.csudh.edu/titlev/learninglog.htm

RMIT University, Study and Learning Centre, Melbourne, Australia (2006). Reflective journals. https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/2_AssessmentTasks/assess_tuts/reflective%20journal_LL/index.html

Selected Resources

Dalhousie University (n.d.). Learning logs. http://channelcontent.dal.ca/portfolio/r_learnlogs.html

Paskevicius, M (n.d.). Conversations in the cloud: The use of blogs to support learning in higher education. https://bluelightdistrict.org/assets/SharedBlogs_2010_v5-completeFinal.doc

Writing to learn learning logs (n.d.). http://www.wku.edu/3kinds/mfllmpg.html#Independent%20Study

Suggested citation

Northern Illinois University Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. (2012). Reflective journals and learning logs. In Instructional guide for university faculty and teaching assistants. Retrieved from https://www.niu.edu/citl/resources/guides/instructional-guide

Active Learning Activities
Assessing Student Learning
Direct vs. Indirect Assessment
Examples of Classroom Assessment Techniques
Formative and Summative Assessment
Peer and Self-Assessment
Rubrics for Assessment
The Process of Grading

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COMMENTS

Reflection as a Learning Tool in the Classroom
April 25, 2023. Milko / iStock. Reflection is a powerful tool for enhancing learning and knowledge acquisition and is essential for teachers and students. When students engage in reflective thinking, they are better able to analyze and evaluate their experiences, which enables them to extract meaning and actively process what they have learned ...
80 Learning Reflection Questions for Students
Final thoughts . Circling back to the heart of this post, reflection questions are undeniably a potent catalyst for meaningful learning. They are more than just queries thrown at the end of a lesson; they are introspective prompts that nudge learners to weave together the tapestry of their educational journey with threads of self-awareness, critical analysis, and personal growth.
The Power of Reflection and Self-Assessment in Student Learning
Self-Assessment Follows Self-Reflection. Self-assessment is closely linked to reflection and involves students evaluating their learning and performance. It empowers students to take ownership of their education by actively participating in the evaluation process. Through self-assessment, students develop a deep sense of responsibility and ...
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Conclusion. Encouraging reflection is a powerful way to deepen learning and develop independent, self-aware learners. By implementing the strategies outlined above, teachers can promote a culture of reflection in their classrooms that enhances students' understanding and empowers them to take charge of their learning journey. Elise Phillips.
PDF The Reflective Learning Framework: A guide for
earning experiences (see the learning cycle in Figure 1). Figure 1. The Experienti. ure 2.5 in D. A. Kolb, 2015 p. 51).The Reflective Learning FrameworkThe Reflective Learning Framework (RLF) was mainly based on the work of Mary Ryan (2011) and further developed, first to address some of the challenges faced when applying it, in terms of ...
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Now, like any convert, I am a disciple and include reflection in nearly every assignment because I have seen the positive results. Self-reflection in learning means examining the way an individual learns. It implies that without thinking deeply about how we learn, we can never gain the insight necessary to correct poor habits and affirm good ones.
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Reflective learning involves actively monitoring and assessing your knowledge, abilities, and performance during the learning process, in order to improve the process and its associated outcomes.. For example, if you're studying for a test, you can engage in reflective learning by asking yourself how well you understand each of the topics that you're studying, and based on this figure out ...
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Early elementary students can identify and articulate their goals through structured reflection on what matters most to them. Reflection helps us remember lessons learned and gives us a sense of accomplishment. When we consider our challenges and experiences deeply, we can identify gratifying experiences and things that we can aspire to do ...
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Abstract. Reflective learning is the process of internally examining and exploring an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective. We suggest that this process is central to understanding the experiential learning process.
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This process of self-reflection has allowed me to gain a deeper understanding of myself, my values, and my goals. It has also empowered me to challenge my own assumptions, embrace personal growth, and develop a greater sense of self-awareness. Another important lesson I have learned through my learning experience is the importance of resilience ...
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Background on reflection for learning. Reflection and learning are deeply intertwined with each other and reflections are central in integrating theoretical and practical competencies, as well as to raise awareness around implicit assumptions (Mezirow, Citation 1997; Schön, Citation 1983).In practice, students will face several situations that are unclear, confusing, complex, and unstable ...
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Reflection-in-action suggests that adjustments are made in the moment, whereas reflection-on action may lead to adjustments to future learning and actions. This seems an area for further exploration. It is also useful to consider the affective component of reflection. While Schön's [2, 3] model was less explicit about this aspect, other ...
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The learning journey was well-received by students across the board. Based on our experiences in the classroom as well as more than 300 qualitative student reflections, we concluded the learning journey did not need much change, and that its successful seven-step process could serve as a template for the two subsequent learning journeys.
Overall Reflection on Learning Journey Essay
Overall Reflection on Learning Journey Essay. Educating young children is a very responsible task. During centuries, philosophers, teachers, and other scientists suggested many teaching techniques and theories that were aimed at improving the process of teaching, learning, and assessment. Indeed, modern education is based on several major ...
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Types of Reflections. Journals and learning logs can be used to reflect on a range of issues and situations from numerous viewpoints and perspectives (RMIT, 2006). RMIT (2006) lists six types of reflections. The following descriptions depict a reflection on university student groups and drinking. Possible student comments are in italics.
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